Analogy
From Freepedia
Analogy is the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an argument from a particular to another particular, as opposed to deduction, induction and abduction, where at least one of the premises or the conclusion is general. The word analogy can also refer to the similarity of subjects themselves, as in the biological notion of analogy.
Analogy plays a significant role in problem solving, decision making, perception, memory, creativity, emotion, explanation and communication. It lies behind basic tasks such as the identification of places, objects and people, e.g. in face perception and facial recognition systems. It has been argued that analogy is "the core of cognition" (see Hofstadter in Gentner et. al. 2001). Specifically analogical language comprises exemplification, comparisons, metaphors, similes, allegories, and parables. Phrases like and so on, etc, and the like and the very word like also rely on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a message including them. Analogy is important not only in ordinary language and common sense, where proverbs and idioms give many examples of its application, but also in science, philosophy and the humanities. The concepts of similarity, resemblance, homology, comparison, association, correspondence and isomorphism are closely related to analogy.
Analogy has been studied and discussed since classical antiquity by philosophers, scientists and lawyers. The last few decades have shown a renewed interest in analogy, most notable in cognitive science.
Contents |
Analogy types
Linguistics
- In linguistics, an analogy can be a spoken or textual comparison between two words (or sets of words) to highlight some form of semantic similarity between them. Linguistic analogies can be used to strengthen political and philosophical arguments, even when the semantic similarity is weak or non-existent (if crafted carefully for the audience).
- An analogy can also be the linguistic process that reduces word forms perceived as irregular by remaking them in the shape of more common forms that are governed by rules. For example, the English verb help once had the preterite holp and the past participle holpen. These obsolete forms have been discarded and replaced by helped by the power of analogy. However, irregular forms can sometimes be created by analogy; one example is the American English past tense form of "dive": "dove", formed on analogy with words such as drive-drove.
- Neologisms can be formed by analogy with existing words. A common example is software, formed by analogy with hardware. Another example is the humorous term underwhelm, formed by analogy with overwhelm.
Mathematics
Some types of analogies can have a precise mathematical formulation through the concept of isomorphism.
Artificial intelligence
Anatomy
- See also: Analogy (biology)
In anatomy, two anatomical structures are considered to be analogous when they serve similar functions but are not evolutionarily related, such as the legs of vertebrates and the legs of insects. Analogous structures are the result of convergent evolution and should be contrasted with homologous structures.
Law
In law, analogy is used to resolve issues on which there is no previous authority. A distinction has to be made between analogous reasoning from written law and analogy to precedent case law.
Analogies from codes and statutes
In civil law systems, where the preeminent source of law are legal codes and statutes, a lacuna (a gap) arises when a specific issue is not explicitly dealt with in written law. Judges will try to identify a provision whose purpose applies to the case at hand. That process can reach a high degree of sophistication, as judges sometimes not only look at specific provision to fill lacunae (gaps), but at several provisions (from which an underlying purpose can be inferred) or at general principles of the law to identify the legislator's value judgement from which the analogy is drawn. Besides the not very frequent filling of lacunae, analogy is very commonly used between different provisions in order to achieve substantial coherence. Analogy from previous judicial decisions is also common, although these decisions are not binding authorities.
Analogies from precedent case law
By contrast, in common law systems, where precedent cases are the primary source of law, analogies to codes and statutes are rare (since those are not seen as a coherent system, but as incursions into the common law). Analogies are thus usually drawn from precedent cases: The judge finds that the facts of another case are similar to the one at hand to an extent that the analogous application of the rule established in the previous case is justified.
Linguistic example
The United States-based SAT test formerly included "analogy" questions in the form "A is to B as C is to what?" For example:
- Hand is to palm as foot is to ____?
These questions are usually given in the format:
- HAND : PALM : : FOOT : ____
External links
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Analogy in Early Greek Thought
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Analogy in Patristic and Medieval Thought
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Medieval Theories of Analogy
References
- Holyoak, K.J. et. al. (1996). Mental Leaps: Analogy in Creative Thought. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press.
- Gentner, D. et. al. (2001). The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press.
