Economy of India
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The economy of India is the fourth-largest in the world as measured by purchasing power parity (PPP), with a GDP of US $3.36 trillion. When measured in USD exchange-rate terms, it is the tenth largest in the world, with a GDP of US $691.87 billion (2004). India was the second fastest growing major economy in the world, with a GDP growth rate of 8.1% at the end of the first quarter of 2005–06. However, India's huge population results in a relatively low per capita income of $3,100 at PPP. The country's economy is diverse and encompasses agriculture, handicrafts, industries and a multitude of services. Services are the major source of economic growth in India today, though two-thirds of the Indian workforce earn their livelihood directly or indirectly through agriculture. In recent times, India has also capitalised on its large number of highly educated people who are fluent in the English language to become a major exporter of software services, financial services and software engineers.
India has adhered to a socialist-inspired approach for most of its independent history, with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. Since the early 1990s, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment. Privatisation of public-owned industries and opening up of certain sectors to private and foreign players has proceeded slowly amid political debate.
The socio-economic problems India faces are a burgeoning population and lack of infrastructure, as well as growing inequality and unemployment. Poverty also remains a problem allthough it has seen a decrease of 10% since the 1980s.
Contents |
History
- Main article: Economic history of India
India's economic history can be broadly compartmentalised into three eras, beginning with the pre-colonial period lasting up to the 17th century. The advent of British colonisation of the Indian subcontinent started the colonial period in the 17th century, which ended with the Indian independence in 1947. The third period is the post-independence period after 1947.
Pre-colonial
The citizens of the Indus valley civilisation, a permanent and predominantly urban settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well planned streets, a drainage system and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the world's first urban sanitation systems, and the existence of some form of municipal government.
Much of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages,[1] whose economies were largely isolated and self-sustaining, with agriculture being the predominant occupation of the populace. It satisfied the food requirements of the village and also provided raw materials for hand-based industries like textile, food processing and crafts. Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was still widely prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue, while its craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services.
Religion, especially Hinduism, the caste and the joint family systems, played an influential role in shaping economic activities. The caste system, despite its social fallbacks, functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring the division of labour, providing for the training of apprentices and in some cases led certain manufacturers to practise super specialisation. For instance, in certain regions, each variety of cloth produced was the speciality of a particular sub-caste.
Superstitions about foreign travel among Hindus meant that a large part of India's foreign trade was carried out by foreigners and Muslims. Indian textiles like muslin, Calicos, shawls, agricultural products like pepper, cinnamon, opium and indigo were exported to Europe, Middle East and South East Asia in return for gold and silver.
The assessment of India's pre-colonial economy is mostly qualitative in nature, owing to the lack of sufficient quantitative information. One estimate puts the revenue of Akbar's Mughal empire in 1600 at £17.5 million, in contrast to the entire treasury of Great Britain in 1800, which totalled £ 16 million. India, by the time of the arrival of the British, was a traditional agrarian economy with a dominant subsistence sector dependent on primitive technology. It existed alongside a competitively developed network of commerce, manufacturing and credit. After the fall of the Mughals and the rise of Maratha imperialism, the Indian economy was plunged into a state of political instability due to internecine wars and conflicts.
Colonial
The colonial rule brought along a favourable institutional environment that guaranteed property rights, ensured free trade, had fixed exchange rates, uniform currency system, uniform weights and measures, open capital markets, created a well developed system of railways and telegraphs, a bureaucracy free from political interferences and a modern legal system. It also coincided with major changes in the world economy - industrialisation, growth in trade and production, and new thinking on economic policies followed by states. By the end of the colonial rule and World War II, however, India inherited an economy which was one of the poorest in the world and stagnant, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly accelerating population, who were subject to frequent famines, had one of the world's lowest life expectancy, suffered from pervasive malnutrition and was largely illiterate.
An estimate by Cambridge historian Angus Maddison reveals that, India's share of the world income, reduced from 22.6% in 1700, comparable to Europe's share of 23.3 %, to a low of 3.8% in 1952. While Indian leaders during the Independence struggle and left-nationalist economic historians have blamed the colonial rule for the dismal state of India's economy, a broader macroeconomic view of India during this period reveals that there were segments of both growth and decline, resulting from changes brought about by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration.
Post-independence
Image:Indias growth rate of real GDP per capita(1950-2004).png
Indian economic policy after independence, influenced by the colonial experience (which was seen by Indian leaders as exploitative in nature), and by their exposure to Fabian socialism, became protectionist in nature, implementing a policy of import substitution, industrialisation, state intervention in labour and financial markets, a large public sector, overt regulation of business, and central planning. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw the economic policy of independent India. They expected favourable outcomes from this strategy since it involved both the public and private sectors and was based on direct and indirect state intervention instead of a Soviet-style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital and technology intensive heavy industry and subsidising hand based and low-skilled cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would not only waste both capital and labour, but also retard the development of smaller manufacturers.
India's low average growth rate upto 1980 was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth, because of the contrasting high growth rates in other Asian countries, especially the East Asian Tigers. The economic reforms that surged economic growth in India after 1980 can be attributed to two stages of reforms. The pro-business reform of 1980 initiated by Indira Gandhi and carried on by Rajiv Gandhi, eased restrictions on capacity expansion for incumbents, removed price controls and reduced corporate taxes. The economic liberalisation of 1991, initiated by then Indian prime minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his finance minister Manmohan Singh in response to a macroeconomic crisis did away with the Licence Raj (investment, industrial and import licensing) and ended public sector monopoly in many sectors, thereby allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors. Since then, the overall direction of liberalisation has remained the same, irrespective of the ruling party at the centre, although no party has yet tried to take on powerful lobbies like the trade unions and farmers, or contentious issues like labour reforms and cutting down agricultural subsidies.
- See also: Timeline of the economy of India
Government intervention
State planning
- Main article: Five-Year Plans of India
After independence, India opted to have a centrally planned economy to ensure an effective and equitable allocation of national resources for the purpose of balanced economic development. After liberalisation, the emergence of a market economy with a fast growing private sector, planning has become indicative, rather than prescriptive in nature. The process of formulation and direction of the Five-Year Plans is carried out by the Planning Commission, headed by the Prime Minister of India as its chairperson.
Mixed economy
India is a mixed economy combining features of both capitalist market economies and socialist command economies. Thus, there is a regulated private sector (the regulations have decreased since liberalisation) and a public sector controlled almost entirely by the government. The public sector generally covers areas which are deemed too important or not profitable enough to leave to the instability of capitalistic markets. Thus such services as railways and postal system are carried out by the government.
Since independence, various phases have seen nationalisation of such areas as banking, thus bringing them into the public sector, on one hand, and privatisation of some of the Public Sector Undertakings during the liberalisation period on the other.
Public expenditure
Image:Reserve-Bank-of-India.jpg India's public expenditure is classified as development expenditure, comprising of central plan expenditure and central assistance and non-development expenditures, comprising of capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. Central plan expenditure is money spent on development schemes outlined in the plans of the central government and public sector undertakings, while central assistance refers to financial assistance and developmental loans given for plans of the state governments and union territories. Non-development capital expenditure comprises of capital defence expenditure, loans to public enterprises, states and union territories and foreign governments, while non-development revenue expenditure comprises revenue defence expenditure, administrative expenditure, subsidies, debt relief to farmers, postal deficit, pensions, social and economic services (education, health, agriculture, science and technology), grants to states and union territories and foreign governments.[4]
India's non-development revenue expenditure have increased nearly five-fold in 2003-04 since 1990-91 and more than ten-fold since 1985-86. Interest payments are the single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40% of the total non development expenditure in the 2003-04 budget. Defence expenditure increased four-fold during the same period and has been increasing due to growing tensions in the region, the expensive dispute with Pakistan over Jammu and Kashmir and an effort to modernise the military. Administrative expenses are compounded by a large salary and pension bill, which rises periodically due to revisions in wages, dearness allowance etc. subsidies on food, fertilisers, education and petroleum and other merit and non-merit subsidies account are not only continuously rising, especially because of rising crude oil and food prices, but are also harder to rein in, because of political compulsions.
Public receipts
Image:Rupees1000.jpg India has a three-tier tax structure, wherein the constitution empowers the union government to levy Income tax, tax on capital transactions (wealth tax, inheritance tax, gift tax), sales tax, service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intra-state sale of goods, tax on entertainment and professions, excise duties on manufacture of alcohol, stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by the state government to levy property tax, Octroi and charge users for public utilities like water supply, sewage etc.[5] More than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come from taxes, of which half come from Indirect taxes. More than a quarter of the union government's tax revenues is shared with the state governments. [6]
The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise the tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions:
- Reducing the rates of individual and corporate income taxes, excises, customs and making it more progressive
- Reducing exemptions and concessions
- Simplification of laws and procedures
- Introduction of Permanent account number to track monetary transactions
- Despite protests from traders, 21 of the 29 states introduced Value added tax (VAT) on April 1, 2005 to replace the complex and multiple sales tax system
The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services.
General budget
The Finance minister of India presents the annual union budget in the Parliament on the last working day of February. The budget has to be passed by the House before it can come into effect on April 1, the start of India's fiscal year. The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey, which is released on the eve of the budget and outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year.
India's union budget for 2005-06, had an estimated outlay of Rs.5,14,344 crores ($118 billion). Earnings from taxes amount to Rs. 2,73,466 crore ($63b). India's fiscal deficit amounts to 4.5% or 1,39,231 crore ($32b).
Currency System
Rupee
- Main article: Indian Rupee
Image:Value of Indian rupee as per dollar & pound (1980-2005).png The Rupee is the only legal tender accepted in the India and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, the latter's currency value being pegged to the rupee.
The rupee is divided into 100 paise. The highest currency note printed is the 1000 rupee note, and the lowest denomination in circulation is the 10 p coin.
For higher numeric figures, India uses its own numbering system of counting in lakhs and crores. A lakh is equal to a hundred thousand, and a crore equal to ten million. The October 2005 exchange rate of about 43.5 to a US dollar, makes a crore (rupees crore) approximately equal to US$230,000.
Exchange rates
Image:Bangalore BrigadeRoad.jpg
Under the fixed exchange rate system, the value of the rupee was linked to the British pound sterling till 1946 and after independence, 30% of India's foreign trade was to be determined in pound sterling. In 1975, as per the Floating exchange rate system, the value of the rupee was pegged to a basket of currencies and was tightly controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. In recent years its value has depreciated with respect to most currencies with the exception of the US dollar.
Since liberalisation, the rupee is fully convertible on trade and current account. The former has enabled Indian businessmen and workers to convert their earnings abroad into rupee at market rates, while the latter has removed all restrictions on foreign exchange for current business transactions as well as travel, education, medical expenses, etc., India has committed to gradually move towards full convertibility, albeit with some restrictions on capital accounts, in order to encourage two-way flow of capital and investment.
Determinants
Demographics
- Main article: Demographics of India
India, with a population of 1.027 billion people, is the second most populous country in the world, accounting for nearly 17% of the world's population. Growth rate of population has shown signs of decrease, coming down from a compound annual growth rate of 2.15 (1951–1981) to 1.93 (1991–2001); despite the decrease in the death rates owing to improvements in healthcare.
The large population puts further pressure on infrastructure, social services like education and has magnified socio-economic problems like unemployment, illiteracy, etc. A positive factor has been the large working age population, which forms 58.2% of the total population, which is expected to substantially increase, because of the decrease in dependency ratio. Increased literacy, better healthcare and self-sufficiency in food production since independence, have ensured that a large population has not caused any serious problems.
Geography and natural resources
- Main article: Geography of India
India's geography ranges from mountain ranges to deserts, plains, hills and plateaus, while its climate varies from tropical in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. India's total cultivable area is 1,269,219 km² (56.78% of total land area), which is decreasing due to constant pressure from an ever growing population and increased urbanisation.
India has a total water surface area of 314,400 km² and receives an average annual rainfall of 1,100 mm. Irrigation accounts for 92% of the water utilisation, and comprised 380 km² in 1974, and is expected to rise to 1,050 km² by 2025, with the balance accounted for by industrial and domestic consumers. India's inland water resources comprising rivers, canals, ponds and lakes and marine resources comprising the east and west coasts of the Indian ocean and other gulfs and bays provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. India is the sixth largest producer of fish in the world and second largest in inland fish production.
India's major mineral resources include Coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world), Iron ore, Manganese, Mica, Bauxite, Titanium ore, Chromite, Natural gas, Diamonds, Petroleum, Limestone and Thorium (world's largest along Kerala's shores). India's oil reserves, found in Bombay High off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and in eastern Assam meet 25% of the country's demand.
Physical infrastructure
Since independence, India has allocated nearly half of the total outlay of the five-year plans for infrastructural development. Much of the total outlay was spent on large projects in the area of irrigation, energy, transport, communications and social overheads. Development of infrastructure was completely in the hands of the public sector and was plagued by corruption, inefficiencies, urban-bias and an inability to scale investment.
India's low spending on power, construction, transportation, telecommunications and real estate, at $31 billion or 6% of GDP, compared to China's spending of $260 billion or 20% of its GDP in 2002 has prevented India from sustaining a growth rate of around 8%. This has prompted the government from opening up infrastructure to the private sector and allowing foreign investment.
Politics
- Main article: Politics of India
India, a federal republic, has had stable democratic governments since independence. Politics is dominated by the centre-left Indian National Congress (INC), the right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the left-wing Communist Party of India (CPI) and CPI (Marxist) and various regional parties, which are either centre-right or centre-left. Despite the varied political spectrums they occupy, the necessity of forming coalitions for government formation, the growing middle class that generally favours liberalisation and tightening fiscal deficits, especially at the state levels, has meant that all political parties adopt a moderate view towards economic reforms.
Financial institutions
Image:Bombay-Stock-Exchange.jpg At the time of Independence, India inherited several institutions like the civil services, central bank, railways, etc., from her British rulers. Mumbai serves as the nation's commercial capital, with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE) located here. The headquarters of many financial institutions are also located within the city.
The RBI, the country's central bank was established on 1935-04-01. It serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the financial system, manager of exchange control and as an issuer of currency. The RBI is governed by a central board, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Central government of India.
The BSE Sensex or the BSE Sensitive Index is a value-weighted index composed of thirty companies with April 1979 as the base year (100). These companies have the largest and most actively traded stocks and are representative of various sectors, on the Exchange. They account for around one-fifth of the market capitalisation of the BSE. The Sensex is generally regarded as the most popular and precise barometer of the Indian stock markets. Incorporated in 1992, the National Stock Exchange is one of the largest and most advanced stock markets in India. The NSE is the world's third largest stock exchange in terms of transactions. There are a total of 23 stock exchanges in India, but the BSE and NSE comprise 83% of the volumes. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), established in 1992, regulates the stock markets and other securities markets of the country.
Sectors
Agriculture
Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 25% of the GDP, employed 57% of the total workforce in 1999-2000 and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic development of India. Yields per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the green revolution. However, international comparisons reveal that the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world.
Image:Composition of indias agricultural output in 2003-04.png
The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors:
- Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing land reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce.
- The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 20,000 m²) and are subject to fragmentation, due to land ceiling acts and in some cases, family disputes. Such small holdings are often over-manned, resulting in disguised unemployment and low productivity of labour.
- Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate, hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs and impracticality in the case of small land holdings.
- Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 53.6% of the land was irrigated in 2000-01 , which result in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon results in a robust growth for the economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth.
Industry
| Global ranking | Company | |
|---|---|---|
| 265 | Image:Ongc logo.png | Oil and Natural Gas Corporation |
| 269 | Image:Sbilogo.gif | State Bank of India Group |
| 279 | Image:Indian Oil logo.png | Indian Oil Corporation |
| 309 | Image:Reliance group logo.png | Reliance Industries Limited |
| 486 | Image:NTPC logo.png | National Thermal Power Corporation |
Concerted efforts at industrialisation by the government, aiming at self-sufficiency in production and protection from foreign competition, for nearly four decades since independence, have encouraged a broad industrial base, both in the public and private sectors. They together account for 28.4% of the GDP and employ 17% of the total workforce. Economic reforms bought foreign competition, led to privatisation of certain public sector firms, opened up sectors hitherto reserved for the public sector and the small scale sector and led to an expansion in the production of durable consumer goods.
Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector, which was usually run by old family firms and required political connections to prosper was faced with foreign competition and the threat of cheap Chinese imports. It has, since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, focusing on designing new products and relying on low labour costs and technology.
Services
The service sector, providing employment to 23% of the work force, is the fastest growing sector, with a growth rate of 7.5% in 1991-2000 up from 4.5% in 1951-80. It has the largest share in the GDP, accounting for 48% in 2000 up from 15% in 1950. Business services (including information technology (IT) and IT enabled services), communication services, financial services, hotels and restaurants, community services and trade (distribution) services are among the fastest growing sectors contributing to one third of the total output of services in 2000. The growth in the service sector is attributed to increased specialisation, availability of a large population of highly-educated and fluent English-speaking workers on the supply side and on the demand side, increased demand from domestic consumers resulting from growth in personal incomes and from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports or those looking to outsource their operations. India's IT industry, despite contributing significantly to its balance of payments, accounted for only about 1% of the total GDP or 1/50th of the total services.
Banking and finance
- Main article: Banking in India
The Indian money market is classified into: the organised sector (comprising private, public and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as scheduled banks); and the unorganised sector (comprising individual or family owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies (NBFCs)). The unorganised sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes, like ceremonies and short duration loans.
Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by seven others in 1980 and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% (since reduced to 10%) of their net credit to priority sectors like agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade, small businesses, etc. to ensure that the banks fulfil their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches have increased from 10,120 in 1969 to 98,910 in 2003 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total deposits increased 32.6 times between 1971 to 1991 compared to 7 times between 1951 to 1971. Despite an increase of rural branches, from 1,860 or 22% of the total number of branches in 1969 to 32,270 or 48%, only 32,270 out of 5 lakh (500,000) villages are covered by a scheduled bank.
Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks (like encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness), other reforms have opened up the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign players.
Socio-economic characteristics
Poverty
The National sample survey organisation (NSSO) estimated that 26.1% of the population was living below the poverty line in 1999–2000, down from 51.3% in 1977–78. The criterion used was monthly consumption of goods below Rs. 211.30 for rural areas and Rs. 454.11 for urban areas. 75% of the poor are in rural areas (27.1% of the total rural population) with most of them comprising daily wagers, self-employed households and landless labourers. The major causes for poverty are unemployment or under-employment, low ownership of assets (especially productive assets like land and farm equipment) and illiteracy.
Since the early 1950s, successive governments have implemented various schemes, under planning, to alleviate poverty, that have met with partial success. All those programs have improved upon the strategies of the Food for work programme and National Rural Employment Programme of the 1980s, which attempted to use the unemployed to generate productive assets and build rural infrastructure. In August 2005, the Indian parliament passed the Rural Employment Guarantee Bill, the largest programme of this type, in terms of cost and coverage, which promises 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in 200 of India's 600-odd districts. The question of whether economic reforms has reduced or increased poverty has fuelled debates without generating any clear cut answers and has also put political pressure on further economic reforms, especially those involving downsizing of labour and cutting down agricultural subsidies.
Corruption
Corruption has been one of the pervasive problems affecting India, along with many developing countries, which has taken the form of bribes, evasion of tax and exchange controls, embezzlement, etc. The economic reforms of 1991 reduced the red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj that had strangled private enterprise and was blamed for the corruption and inefficiencies. Yet, a 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) India found that more than half of those surveyed had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office.
The chief economic consequences of corruption are the loss to the exchequer, an unhealthy climate for investment and an increase in the cost of government-subsidised services. The TI India study estimates the monetary value of petty corruption in 11 basic services provided by the government, like education, healthcare, judiciary, police, etc., to be around Rs.21,068 crores. India still ranks in the bottom quartile of developing nations in terms of the ease of doing business, and compared to China, the average time taken to secure the clearances for a startup or to invoke bankruptcy is much greater.
The Right to Information Act (2005) and equivalent acts in the states, that require government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action, computerisation of services and various central and state government acts that established vigilance commissions have considerably reduced corruption or at least have opened up avenues to redress grievances. [8]
Occupations and unemployment
Image:Women farm workers in coimbatore.jpg
Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 57% of the total workforce in 1999-2000, down from 60% in 1993-94. While agriculture has faced stagnation in growth, services have seen a steady growth. Of the total workforce, 8% is in the organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the public sector. The NSSO survey estimated that in 1999-2000, 106 million, nearly 10% of the population were unemployed and the overall unemployment rate was 7.32%, with rural areas doing marginally better (7.21%) than urban areas (7.65%).
Unemployment in India, like most other developing countries, is characterised by chronic underemployment or disguised unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment, attempt to solve the problem, by providing financial assistance for setting up businesses, skill honing, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation has further undermined the need for focusing on better education and has also put political pressure on further reforms.
Regional imbalance
- Main article: List of regions of India
One of the critical problems facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of per capita income, poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic development. For instance, the difference in growth rate between the forward and backward states was 0.3% (5.2% & 4.9%) during 1980-81 to 1990-91, but had grown to 3.3% (6.3% & 3.0%) during 1990-91 to 1997-98.
The five-year plans have attempted to reduce regional disparities by sanctioning industrial development in the interior regions, but industries still tend to concentrate around urban areas and port cities. Even the industrial townships in the interiors, Bhilai for instance, resulted in very little development in the surrounding areas. After liberalisation, the disparities have grown despite the efforts of the union government in reducing them. Part of the reason being, manufacturing and services and not agriculture are the engines of growth, in which the forward states are better placed, with infrastructure like well developed ports, urbanisation and an educated and skilled workforce which attract manufacturing and service sectors. The union and state governments of backward regions are trying to reduce the disparities by offering tax holidays, cheap land, etc., and focusing more on sectors like tourism, which although being geographically and historically determined, can become a source of growth and is faster to develop than other sectors.
External trade and investment
Global trade relations
Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from the world markets in order to protect its fledging economy and achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment was restricted by upper limit equity participation, requirements on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals, which were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. These restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985-1991 and a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians.
| Rank | Country | Inflows (Million USD) | Inflows (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Image:Flag of Mauritius.svg Mauritius | 8,898 | 34.49% [9] |
| 2 | Image:Flag of the United States.svg United States | 4,389 | 17.08% |
| 3 | Image:Flag of Japan.svg Japan | 1,891 | 7.33% |
| 4 | Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Netherlands | 1,847 | 7.16% |
| 5 | Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom | 1,692 | 6.56% |
India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years, due to the predominance of tea, jute and cotton manufactures, whose demand were generally inelastic. Imports in the same period consisted predominantly of machinery, equipment and raw materials due to the nascent industrialisation. Post-liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has become more broad based and gone up to Rs. 63,080,109 crores in 2003-04 from Rs.1,250 crores in 1950-51. India's major trading partners are China, United States, UAE, UK, Japan and the European Union.
India is a founder-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since 1947 and its successor, the World Trade Organization since its inception. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of such matters as labour and environment issues and other non-tariff barriers into the WTO policies.
Balance of payments
Since independence, India's balance of payments on current account has been negative for most of the years, owing to a larger share of imports vis-à-vis exports. Since liberalisation, incidentally precipitated by a balance of payment crisis, India's exports have been consistently rising, covering 80.3% of India's imports in 2002-03, up from 66.2% in 1990-91. Although India is still a net importer, since 1996-97, India's overall balance of payments (current account balance + capital account balance) has been positive, largely on account of increased foreign direct investment and deposits from non-resident Indians, which until then, was occasionally positive on account of external assistance and commercial borrowings. As a result, India's foreign currency reserves stood 141 billion USD as on 2005-06.
India's reliance on external assistance and commercial borrowings has decreased since 1991-92 and since 2002-03, it has been repaying them. Declining interest rates and reduced borrowings have decreased India's debt service ratio to 14.1% in 2001-02 from 35.3% in 1990-91.
See also
| List of topics related to the Economy of India | |
|---|---|
| Institutions: | BSE, DSE, IIM, NSE, RBI, SEBI |
| Lists: | Glossary, Banks, Companies, RBI governors, Economic development related government initiatives, Bollywood and the portrayal of the economy of India |
| Categories: | Airlines, Banks, Companies, Finance Ministers |
Notes
1. ^ The 1872 census puts the non-urban population at 91.3%.
2. ^ Data for Bangladesh is not available for 1950.
3. ^ Totals are rounded off. Private sector data relates to non-agriculture establishments employing ten or more persons. Coverage in construction, especially in the private sector is known to be inadequate.
4. ^ Public expenditure was classified as plan and non-plan expenditure in the 1987-88 union budget. It is now referred to as development and non-development expenditure, but the definition remains the same. Development expenditure is a capital expenditure.
5. ^ Service tax and expenditure tax are not levied in Jammu and Kashmir; Intra-state sale happens when goods or the title of goods move from one state to another.
6. ^ Tax revenue was 88% of total union government revenue in 1950-51 and has come down to 73% in 2003-04, as a result of increase in non-tax revenue. Tax revenues were 70% of total state government revenues in 2002 to 2003. Indirect taxes were 84% of the union governments total tax revenue and have come down to 62% in 2003-04, mostly due to cuts in import duties and rationalisation. The states share in union government's tax revenue is 28.0% for the period 2000 to 2005 as per the recommendations of the eleventh finance commission. In addition, states that do not levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco, are entitled to 1.5 % of the proceeds.
7. ^ Old private banks are private banks existing prior to opening up of the banking sector.
8. ^ Example of a central government department's implementation of the Right to Information Act.
9. ^ Much of India's FDI is routed through Mauritius, because both countries have an agreement to avoid double taxation.
External links
- Department of Public Enterprises
- Finance Ministry of India
- Indian business
- Taxation
- OxusResearch Research publications – poverty in India.
- RBI's database on the Indian economy
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References
Prose contains specific citations in source text which may be viewed in edit mode.
- Books
- {{{Author|}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1| (1946)}}{{{{{Year|}}}}}}|show1|.}} {{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|[{{{URL}}}}} Discovery of India{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|]}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|, {{{Pages}}}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|Show1|, Penguin Books}}. {{{ID|}}}
- {{{Author|}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1| (1982)}}{{{{{Year|}}}}}}|show1|.}} {{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|[{{{URL}}}}} The Cambridge Economic History of India (Volume 2) c. 1757 - c. 1970{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|]}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|, {{{Pages}}}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|Show1|, Penguin Books}}. {{{ID|}}}
- {{{Author|}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1| (2005)}}{{{{{Year|}}}}}}|show1|.}} {{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|[{{{URL}}}}} Indian Economy{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|]}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|, {{{Pages}}}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|Show1|, S.Chand}}. {{{ID|}}}
- {{{Author|}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1| (1994)}}{{{{{Year|}}}}}}|show1|.}} {{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|[{{{URL}}}}} Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|]}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|, {{{Pages}}}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|Show1|, Margham Publications}}. {{{ID|}}}
- {{{Author|}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1| (2000)}}{{{{{Year|}}}}}}|show1|.}} {{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|[{{{URL}}}}} The Economic History of India{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|]}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|show1|, {{{Pages}}}}}{{|{{{3}}}}}}|Show1|, Oxford University Press}}. {{{ID|}}}
- Bharadwaj, Krishna (1991). "Regional differentiation in India". In Sathyamurthy, T.V. (ed.), Industry & agriculture in India since independence, pp. 189-199. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5643-94-1.
- Papers
- Williamson, John and Zagha, Roberto (2002). "From the Hindu Rate of Growth to the Hindu Rate of Reform." Working Paper No. 144. Center for research on economic development and policy reform.
- DeLong, J. Bradford (2001). "India Since Independence: An Analytic Growth Narrative"
- Centre for Media Studies (2005). "India Corruption Study 2005: To Improve Governance Volume – I: Key Highlights." Transparency International India.
- Kelegama, Saman and Parikh, Kirit (2000). "Political Economy of Growth and Reforms in South Asia." Second Draft.
- Cameron, John and Ndhlovu, P Tidings (2001). "Cultural Influences on Economic Thought in India: Resistance to diffusion of neo-classical economics and the principles of Hinduism"
- Panagariya, Arvind (2004). "India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms"
- Rodrik, Dani and Subramanian, Arvind (2004). "From “Hindu Growth” To Productivity Surge: The Mystery Of The Indian Growth Transition"
- Bernardi, Luigi and Fraschini, Angela (2005). "Tax System And Tax Reforms In India." Working paper n. 51.
- Gordon, Jim and Gupta, Poonam (2003). "Understanding India's Services Revolution." November 12, 2003.
- Ghosh, Jayati. Bank Nationalisation: The Record. Macroscan. Accessed on August 5, 2005.
- Srinivasan, T.N. (2002). "Economic Reforms and Global Integration." 17 January 2002.
- Sachs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam and Ramiah, Ananthi (2002). "Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India." Working paper 88.
- Government publications
- "Jawahar gram samriddhi yojana." Accessed July 9, 2005.
- "India & the World Trade Organization." Accessed July 9, 2005.
- "Economic Survey 2004-2005." Accessed July 15, 2005.
- "History of the Planning Commission." Accessed July 22, 2005.
- Multiple authors (2004). "Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2004"
- Kurian, N.J.. Regional disparities in india. . Accessed on August 6, 2005.
- News
- “That old Gandhi magic”, The Economist, November 27 1997.
- “India says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax”, Daily Times, March 25 2005.
- “Economic structure”, The Economist, October 6 2003.
- “Indian manufacturers learn to compete”, The Economist, 12 February 2004.
- “India’s next 50 years”, The Economist, August 14 1997.
- “The plot thickens”, The Economist, May 31 2001.
- “The voters' big surprise”, The Economist, May 13 2004.
- "Regional stock exchanges -- Bulldozed by the Big Two." Accessed August 10, 2005.
- "Infrastructure the missing link." Accessed August 14, 2005.
- “Rural Employment Guarantee Bill passed by voice vote”, Yahoo, August 23 2005.
- “India grows 8.1 pct in Apr-June, outlook strong”, Reuters, September 30 2005.
- “Of Oxford, economics, empire, and freedom”, The Hindu, October 02 2005.
- Articles
- "Milton Friedman on the Nehru/Mahalanobis Plan." Accessed July 16, 2005.
- "Share of Top Investing Countries in FDI Inflows." Accessed August 9, 2005.
- "Forex reserves up by $88mn." Accessed August 10, 2005.
- "CIA - The World Facbook." Accessed August 2, 2005.
- "Infrastructure in India: Requirements and favorable climate for foreign investment." Accessed August 14, 2005.
- "PPP GDP 2004." Accessed August 14, 2005.
- "Total GDP 2004." Accessed August 14, 2005.
- "India to sign free trade agreement with Mauritius." Accessed August 15, 2005