Empress Dowager Cixi
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Image:陆23.JPG The Empress Dowager Cixi (Chinese: 慈禧太后; pinyin: Cíxǐ; Wade-Giles: Tz'u-hsi) (November 29, 1835–November 15, 1908), popularly known in China as the Western Empress Dowager (西太后), and officially known posthumously as Empress Xiaoqin Xian (孝欽顯皇后), was a powerful and charismatic figure who was the de facto ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, ruling over China for most of the period from 1861 to her death in 1908.
Historians consider that she probably did her best to cope with the difficulties of the era but her conservative attitudes did not serve her well and the Western powers continued to take advantage of the country's relatively low level of technological development.
Cixi was a major concubine of the Emperor Xianfeng（咸丰皇帝）. Soon after Emperor Xianfeng died in 1861, Cixi along with Empress Ci'an（慈安太后）became regents for the boy. The two Dowager Empresses, counseled by the late Emperor's brother, maintained this position until 1873 when Emperor Tongzhi（同治皇帝）came of age.
Two years later, the young man was dead. Cixi violated the normal succession and had her three year old nephew named the new heir. The two Dowager Empresses continued as regents until the death of Ci'an, the other Dowager Empress, in 1881, when Cixi became the de facto ruler of China.
When Emperor Guangxu（光绪皇帝; Wade-Giles: Kuang-hsu）, the nephew, attained maturity, Cixi retired to the country, though she kept herself informed through a network of spies. After China lost the Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895), Guangxu implemented many reforms in what came to be known as the "Hundred Days of Reform." In reaction, Cixi worked with the military and conservative forces to stage a coup and take power again as active regent, confining the emperor to his palace.
The next year, Cixi supported the forces behind the Boxer Rebellion, an anti-reform and anti-foreign rebellion. When foreign troops retaliated by entering the Forbidden City and capturing Peking (Beijing), Cixi accepted the offered peace terms. As appeasement, she eventually implemented the reforms that she'd stopped her nephew from instituting. She continued to rule, her power much diminished, until her death in 1908. Emperor Guangxu died as she was dying, reportedly poisoned at her direction.
Her actual power surpassed that of another great Queen who was her contemporary, England's Queen Victoria. In addition to her part in the politics of her day, she's also remembered for her patronage of the arts including the opera, and the founding of the Peking Zoological Garden (1906), later the first zoo to breed the giant panda.
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Dowager Empress Cixi
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Youth
Recent biographies of Cixi usually state that she was the daughter of a low-ranking Manchu official, Huizheng (惠征), of the Yehe-Nara clan, serving in Shanxi province and then in Anhui province. Her mother, the principal wife of Huizheng, was the Lady Fuca, of the Manchu Fuca clan. Recent biographies are unable to decide where exactly Cixi was born. She is supposed to have spent most of her early life in Anhui (after a brief period in Shanxi), and then moved to Beijing at an unknown age between her third and her fifteenth birthday. According to biographers, her father was sacked from civil service in 1853 (Cixi was already a concubine inside the Forbidden City at that time), allegedly for not resisting the Taiping Rebellion in Anhui province and deserting his post. Some biographers even state that her father was beheaded for his desertion.
However, in the last 20 years, with the opening-up of society inside China, new stories have emerged. Following claims by families of farmers living near the city of Changzhi (长治) in Shanxi province, a 10-year inquiry was conducted by a team led by Liu Qi (刘奇), the director of the Bureau of local chronicles for the City of Changzhi. The results of the inquiry were published in 1999 in a book in Chinese titled "Cracking the Mystery of Cixi's Youth" (《揭开慈禧童年之谜》). Backed by 38 pieces of evidence gathered from local farmer families as well as from historical documents, this work is an earthshaking contribution to the history of Cixi, and is disturbing many long-held postulates. Liu Qi's inquiry has nonetheless been accepted as accurate by a significant part of the Chinese historical community, and has received a prize from the Art Research Institute of the People's Republic of China in 1999.
According to Liu Qi's findings, Cixi was born in 1835 in the village of Xipo (西坡村), located inside the township of Beicheng (北呈乡), in Changzhi county (长治县), depending from the prefecture-level city of Changzhi (长治市), then called Lu'an prefecture (潞安府), Shanxi province. The village of Xipo lies approximately 20 km/12 miles from downtown Changzhi. Cixi was born in a family of Han Chinese farmers, the Wang family, and was given the name Xiaoqian. Her original name was thus Wang Xiaoqian (王小謙). Her mother died soon, and the family being extremely poor, 4-year-old Cixi was sold by her father to Song Siyuan (宋四元), a farmer from the neighboring village of Shangqin (上秦村), in Haojiazhuang township (郝家庄乡), Changzhi county. Selling of children was common in 19th century China in poor families. In the Song family, Cixi was given a new given name, Ling'e, so that her name was now Song Ling'e (宋齡娥). Cixi spent her pre-teenage years among the Song family. However, the Song family was soon met with hardship and found itself in dire needs. Consequently, 12-year-old Cixi was sold by her adopted father Song Siyuan to the prefect of Lu'an, a Manchu official called Huizheng who was mentioned previously. Cixi was purchased by Huizheng to become a servant maid for his house, but soon enough her beauty was such that she was adopted by Huizheng, and became part of the Yehe-Nara clan. She was given the name Yulan (玉蘭 - "Jade Orchid") by her new family, shortened to Lanr (蘭兒 - "Orchid") in everyday life. She became known as the Lady Yehenara in formal occasions.
These findings are properly earthshaking, because if true they would mean that Cixi was not of Manchu ethnicity, as has always been assumed, but was Han Chinese. The Qing Imperial House itself would then have been fooled into thinking that the young Lady Yehenara was Manchu when she was admitted inside the Forbidden City. It was always assumed that the reason why Cixi had no bound feet was because she was Manchu (Manchu girls, unlike their Han Chinese counterparts, did not undergo the traumatic binding of feet), but after Liu Qi's findings it appears that the probable reason is because her Han Chinese family was too low in the social ladder to be concerned with the binding of her feet (usually, the poorest Han Chinese families did not bind the feet of girls, no prospect of a marriage with a higher status family being possible whatsoever).
Although Liu Qi's findings still need the test of time before being taken for granted, they would certainly explain a lot of what appeared before as oddities, such as the fact that Cixi did not speak a word of Manchu (although this was not totally unusual in 19th century Manchu elites), or the fact that she knew so well the folk songs of Shanxi province, or the numerous gifts that she gave to the inhabitants of Lu'an prefecture after she had become the absolute master of China. .
Names
Cixi had different names at different stages of her life, which could be quite confusing. Moreover, most of her Western biographers, who in general do not read Chinese, frequently confuse these names.
The name of Cixi at birth is still unresolved (see Youth section below). Upon her entrance into the Forbidden City, Cixi was registered as "the Lady Yehenara, daughter of Huizheng (惠征)". Thus she was called by the name of her clan, the Yehe-Nara, as was customary for Manchu girls. Cixi was a secretive person, and she seldom talked about her childhood. After she came to power, the subject of her life before entering the palace was taboo, so it is no surprise that records of her original name as well as her youth were lost.
When she entered the Forbidden City in September 1851 (or June 1852, depending on the source), Cixi was made a concubine of the fifth rank (貴人), and she was given the name Lan (蘭 - meaning "orchid"). Her name was thus "Concubine of the fifth rank Lan" (蘭貴人). At the end of December 1854 or the beginning of January 1855, she was promoted to concubine of the fourth rank (嬪), and her name was changed to Yi (懿 - meaning "virtuous"). On April 27, 1856, she gave birth to a son, the only son of Emperor Xianfeng (the empress consort had been unsuccessful in producing an heir), and was immediately made "Concubine of the third rank Yi" (懿妃). In February 1857 she was again elevated and made "Concubine of the second rank Yi" (懿貴妃).
Towards the end of August 1861, following the death of Emperor Xianfeng, Cixi's five year-old son became the next emperor – Emperor Tongzhi, whose reign officially started in 1862). Cixi was made "Holy Mother¹ Empress Dowager" (聖母皇太后), though she was not the empress consort while Emperor Xianfeng was alive. She was privileged to become empress dowager only because she was the biological mother of Emperor Tongzhi. She was also given the honorific name (徽號) Cixi – meaning "motherly and auspicious". The former empress consort was made "Empress Mother Empress Dowager" (母后皇太后), a title giving her precedence over Cixi, and was given the honorific name Ci'an – meaning "motherly and calming". As she dwelled in the western section of the Forbidden City, Cixi became popularly known as the Western Empress Dowager, while Ci'an became known as the Eastern Empress Dowager for the same reason.
On seven occasions since 1861, Cixi was given additional honorific names (two Chinese characters at a time), as was customary for emperors and empresses, until by the end of her reign her name was a long string of 16 characters starting with Cixi (as empress dowager she had the right to nine additions, giving a total of 20 characters, had she lived long enough for it). At her death, her official name was:
- The Current Holy Mother Empress Dowager Cixi Duanyou Kangyi Zhaoyu Zhuangcheng Shougong Qinxian Chongxi² of the Empire of the Great Qing
- (大清國當今慈禧端佑康頤昭豫莊誠壽恭欽獻崇熙聖母皇太后)
The short form was:
- The Current Holy Mother Empress Dowager of the Empire of the Great Qing
- (大清國當今聖母皇太后)
At the time, Cixi was also addressed as "Venerable Buddha" (老佛爺) – literally "Master³ Old Buddha". This was not a title created for her, as is often but wrongly stated by Western biographers, but an official form of address used for all the emperors of the Qing Dynasty, who were devoted Buddhists. Cixi liked to be treated like a man, and insisted on her subjects using words reserved for men when addressing her. As the de facto ruler of China, she was revered with the phrase "Long Live the Empress Dowager for ten thousand years", by convention only used on Emperors, during official and ceremonial occasions. Empress dowagers usually enjoyed only "a thousand years" of long life.
At her death in 1908, she smelt.. Cixi was given a posthumous name which combined her honorific names with new names added just after her death. This posthumous name is:
- Empress Xiaoqin4 Cixi Duanyou Kangyi Zhaoyu Zhuangcheng Shougong Qinxian Chongxi5 Peitian Xingsheng6 Xian7
- (孝欽慈禧端佑康頤昭豫莊誠壽恭欽獻崇熙配天興聖顯皇后)
This long name is still the one that can be seen on Cixi's tomb today. The short form of her posthumous name is:
- Empress Xiaoqin Xian
- (孝欽顯皇后)
Road to power
Image:慈禧太后5.jpg The young Lady Yehenara was registered by her parents with the Imperial Court, as was required for all the Manchu girls of the empire, in order to keep track of potential concubines for the emperor. In September 1851 (or June 1852, depending on sources), she was summoned to the Forbidden City with other Manchu girls to undergo a selection process, in order to provide concubines for the new emperor Xianfeng, under the supervision of Concubine Dowager Kangci (康慈皇貴太妃) (1812-1855). Lady Yehenara was one of the few girls selected by Concubine Dowager Kangci on that occasion. Concubine Dowager Kangci was the highest ranking surviving concubine of the late emperor Daoguang, and so she was the woman with the highest status inside the Forbidden City. She was the de facto mother of Emperor Xianfeng, although not his biological mother. In 1840, at the death of Xianfeng's mother, Empress Xiaoquan Cheng (孝全成皇后), the then concubine of the first rank Jing (靜皇貴妃) had raised the 8-year-old boy, and when he had become Emperor Xianfeng in 1850 at the death of Emperor Daoguang, she had been made Concubine Dowager Kangci. She was thus in charge of selecting the empress and the concubines of Emperor Xianfeng. Concubine Dowager Kangci was also the biological mother of Prince Gong (恭親王), who would play an important role in the years to come.
On April 27, 1856, Lady Yehenara, then Concubine of the fourth rank Yi, gave birth to a son, the only son of Emperor Xianfeng, to be named heir, and later Tongzhi Emperor. Her status inside the Forbidden City thus dramatically changed, and she became the second highest ranking woman in the palace, just behind the empress consort (later known as Empress Dowager Ci'an).
On August 22, 1861, in the wake of the Second Opium War, Emperor Xianfeng died at the Rehe Traveling Palace (熱河行宫) in Jehol (now called Chengde), 230 km/140 miles northeast of Beijing, where the imperial court had fled. His heir, the son of the concubine Yi, was only 5-year-old. As a consequence, the imperial family was shaken by a struggle over who would assume the regency. Eventually, in November 1861, the concubine Yi, with the help of Prince Gong, staged a palace coup known as the Xinyou Coup (辛酉政變), had the opposing princes commit suicide and their leader the Manchu official Sushun (肅順) beheaded, and succeeded in securing the power into her hands and those of the empress consort. She would now be known in History as Empress Dowager Cixi. Cixi became co-regent along with the less politically involved Empress Dowager Ci'an, ruling behind the curtain (a court official required that the two co-regents, both women, attend imperial audiences behind a curtain). Cixi then ruled China for most of the period from 1861 until her death in 1908.
Regency under Tongzhi
Image:Mms7858dd20020823821.jpg For the next forty-seven years until her death in 1908, Cixi assumed the regency of the Empire of the Great Qing, along with co-regent Ci'an, first during the minority of Emperor Tongzhi, then during the minority of the Guangxu Emperor after the premature death of Tongzhi in January 1875. Although in theory Ci'an had precedence over her, Cixi was the actual master of China. Ci'an seldom intervened in politics but inserted her will in what may have caused her death when she intervened in Cixi's politics in 1869. The most feared grand eunuch of the imperial court An Dehai (安德海), close confidant of Cixi, was on a trip south to buy some dragon robes for Cixi. While traveling in Shandong province, he used his power as an envoy of Cixi to extort money from people, which caused great trouble. The matter was reported to the court by the governor of Shandong, and Ci'an who heard about it ordered the immediate execution of An Dehai, who had been the all powerful figure at the imperial court until then. The execution of An Dehai is said to have greatly displeased Cixi.
Cixi was perceived by the majority in modern China to have sidelined the naive and candid Ci'an and ruled as a sole authority in her need for power. However, some historians have painted a very different reality, mainly that Cixi was a shrewd and intelligent woman who was ready to make sacrifices and work hard in order to obtain the supreme power, and who faced the complex problems that were besetting China at the time, while Ci'an was indulging in an easy life and did not care as much for government and hard work as she cared for her pleasures and sweet life inside the Forbidden City. As often, reality may lie in between these two extreme visions.
Securing absolute power
Image:Mms7858dd20020823826.jpg Empress Dowager Ci'an died suddenly on April 8, 1881, during an audience at the court. Her sudden death after a life of excellent health was a shock and rumor naturally spread that she had been poisoned by Cixi, perhaps in revenge for the execution of An Dehai 12 years before. However, such claims have never been substantiated and new evidence has not appeared in the many years since. The death of Empress Dowager Ci'an gave sole power to Empress Cixi as remaining regent.
Crisis with Guangxu
Guangxu's coming of age when he was seventeen meant Cixi would relinquish her powers. The 1st Prince Chun, however, had continually insisted that Cixi continue the regency.
Overview of politics
While seeking China's "self-strengthening" through strictly-controlled industrial and military growth, she opposed attempts at political modernization, staging a coup d'etat (September 21, 1898) against the political influence of the Guangxu Emperor to end the Hundred Days' Reform. Cixi's contribution to the self-strengthening movement, though, could be frustratingly two-sided. Whilst she supported economic and military modernisation, approving the construction of railways and factories and encouraging use of Western weapons and tactics, she was capable of holding back the programme through relatively simple acts. For her 60th birthday in 1895, Cixi relocated the astronomical sum of 30 million taels of silver, which had been earmarked for the construction of ten new warships, to pay for her birthday party. The Chinese Navy had recently lost most of its modern warships in the 1894 Sino-Japanese War, and urgently needed the money to rebuild a high-tech fleet. Instead of using the money to safeguard China's military security, Cixi instead chose to fritter the money away on a party.
In 1900, Cixi's support of the self-strengthening movement was again called into question when the Boxer Rebellion broke out in northern China. Eager to preserve traditional Chinese values, Cixi threw in her lot with the rebels, making an official announcement of her support for the movement. When the Westerners responded by dispatching the Eight-Nation Alliance, the Chinese military, badly underdeveloped due to Cixi's habit of filching military funds, was unable to prevent the high-tech Allied army from marching on Peking and seizing the Forbidden City. Determined to prevent another Chinese rebellion, the Western powers inposed a humiliating treaty on China, and Cixi, with no military forces capable of protecting even her own palace, was forced to sign. The treaty demanded the presence of an international military force in China and the payment of £67 million in reparations.
Cixi died on November 15, 1908, after having installed Puyi as the new emperor of the Qing Dynasty on November 14.
Tomb
Cixi was interred amidst the Eastern Qing Tombs (清東陵), 125 kilometers/75 miles east of Beijing, in the Dingdongling (定東陵) tomb complex (literally: the "Tombs east of the Dingling tomb"), along with Empress Dowager Ci'an. More precisely, Ci'an lies in the Puxiangyu Dingdongling (普祥峪定東陵) (literally: the "Tomb east of the Dingling tomb in the Vale of wide good omen"), while Cixi built herself the much larger Putuoyu Dingdongling (菩陀峪定東陵) (literally: the "Tomb east of the Dingling tomb in the Vale of Putuo"). The Dingling tomb (literally: the "Tomb of quietude") is the tomb of Emperor Xianfeng, the emperor of Ci'an and Cixi, which is located indeed west of the Dingdongling. The Vale of Putuo owes its name to Mt Putuo (literally: the "Mountain of the Dharani of the Site of the Buddha's Enlightenment"), at the foot of which the Dingdongling is located.
Cixi, unsatisfied with her tomb, ordered its destruction and reconstruction in 1895. The new tomb was a lavish grandiose complex of temples, gates, and pavilions, covered with gold leaves, and with gold and gilded-bronze ornaments hanging from the beams and the eaves. In July 1928, Cixi's tomb was occupied by warlord and Kuomintang general Sun Dianying (孫殿英) and his army who methodically stripped the complex of its precious ornaments, then dynamited the entrance to the burial chamber, opened Cixi's coffin, threw her corpse (said to have been found intact) on the floor, and stole all the jewels contained in the coffin, as well as the massive pearl that had been placed in Cixi's mouth to protect her corpse from decomposing (in accordance with Chinese tradition). The large pearl on Cixi's crown was offered by Sun Dianying to Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek and ended up as an ornament on the gala shoes of Chiang's wife, the famous Soong May-ling.
After 1949, the complex of Cixi's tomb was restored by the People's Republic of China, and it is still today one of the most impressive imperial tombs of China.
Historical opinion
The traditional view is that Cixi was a devious despot who maintained a deathgrip on what little power she had until that power faded out completely. Three years after her death, the Imperial dynasty was itself overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution. However, some authors, such as Sterling Seagrave in his biography The Dragon Lady maintain a far more positive view of Cixi, arguing that she has been unfairly maligned and when seen more closely, her actions were reasonable responses to the difficulties that China faced. Another sympathetic account can be found in Anchee Min's historical novel Empress Orchid (2004). The CCTV production Towards the Republic (走向共和) portrayed Cixi as a capable ruler, albeit not entirely positive -- for the first time in the history of Mainland Chinese television, although it also clearly demonstrated her political views as very conservative. While considering her frequent portrayal as a despot, one must bear in mind the traditional Confucian idea widely held in her day that women in general, and especially influential women, caused trouble and were not to be trusted (a similar demonisation has occurred with Empress Wu of the Tang Dynasty).
Kathernine A. Carl, a painter who spent some ten months with the Empress Dowager Cixi in 1903 to paint Cixi's portrait for the St. Louis Exposition, wrote a book about her experience, With the Empress Dowager, published in 1905. In the book's introduction, Carl says she wrote the book because "After I returned to America, I was constantly seeing in the newspapers (and hearing of) statements ascribed to me which I never made."
In her book, Carl describes the Empress Dowager Cixi as a kind and considerate woman for her station. Cixi, though shrewd, had great presence, charm, and graceful movements resulting in "an unusually attractive personality." Cixi loved dogs and had a kennel maintained by eunuchs at the Summer Palace where she had "some magnificent specimens of Pekingese pugs and of a sort of Skye terrier." She did not like cats and some of the eunuchs who had cats made sure to keep them "within rigid bounds, on no condition allowing them to come within Her Majesty's ken." Cixi enjoyed flowers and the staff of the Summer Palace ensured the rooms and courtyards were kept properly dressed with cut flowers.
Image:慈禧油画.jpg The Empress Dowager understood loyalty and practiced it with her retinue. Carl while describing the Palace staff says: "Among these is a Chinese woman who nursed Her Majesty through a long illness, about twenty-five years since, and saved her life by giving her mother's milk to drink. Her Majesty, who never forgets a favor, has always kept this woman in the Palace. Being a Chinese, she had bound feet. Her Majesty, who cannot bear to see them even, had her feet unbound and carefully treated, until now she can walk comfortably. Her Majesty has educated the son, who was an infant at the time of her illness, and whose natural nourishment she partook of. This young man is already a Secretary in a good yamen (Government Office)."
Cixi enjoyed boating on the lake at the Summer Palace, walks through the gardens and grounds of the Palace (actually the Imperial family rode in sedan chairs so the eunuchs did the majority of the walking), and presentations of Chinese opera in the Summer Palace Opera house. Cixi smoked Chinese water pipes as well as European cigarettes through a cigarette holder. At an age of 69, Cixi was in sufficiently good physical shape that when providing a tour of the Summer Palace Opera House to Carl, Cixi "mounted the steep and difficult steps with as much ease and lightness as I did, and I had on comfortable European shoes, while she wears the six-inch-high Manchu sole in the middle of her foot, and must really walk as if on stilts."
A film called Lover of the Last Empress (慈禧秘密生活, 1995) was made about her path to become the ruler of the Empire.
External links
- http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_cixi.htm?terms=cixi
- http://www.royalty.nu/Asia/China/TzuHsi.html
- http://www.kings.edu/womens_history/tzuhsi.html
- http://www.tydao.com/suwu/lishi/cxss.htm - Article about the book "Cracking the Mystery of Cixi's Youth" (Chinese)
