Exoskeleton

From Freepedia

An exoskeleton, in contrast to an endoskeleton, is an external anatomical feature that supports and protects an animal's body. Many invertebrate animals such as insects, crustaceans and shellfish have exoskeletons. Lobsters, for example, have tough outer shell systems which provide rigidity and shape to their bodies.

Humans have long used armour as an artificial exoskeleton for protection, especially in combat. Exoskeletal items are also used for medical and industrial purposes. Human exoskeletons are a feature of science fiction writing. Orthoses are a form of exoskeleton.

Contents

Natural exoskeletons

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Types of exoskeletons

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Moulting

An exoskeleton may interfere with an animal's growth. To overcome this, arthropods go through a process called moulting in which they shed their exoskeleton and replace it with a new, larger one.

Excellent as a principle of defence, exoskeletons may nevertheless cause problems where entities carry an excessive weight to surface-area ratio; or whenever organism growth requires an enlarged exoskeleton.

Artificial human exoskeletons

Exoskeletons in history

Medieval armour (in the case of mounted knights) is not load-bearing, but furnishes the appearance of an artificial human exoskeleton.

Exoskeletons in medicine

An orthosis (plural orthoses) is a device which attaches to a limb, or the torso, to support the function or correct the shape of that limb or the spine. Orthotics is the field dealing with orthoses, their use, and their manufacture. An orthotist is a person who designs and fits orthoses.

A limb prosthesis (plural prostheses) is a device that substitutes for a missing part of a limb. If the prosthesis is a hollow shell and self-carrying, it is exoskeletal. If internal tubes are used in the device and the cover (cosmesis) to create the outside shape is made of a soft, non-carrying material, it is endoskeletal. Prosthetics is the field that deals with prostheses, their use, and their manufacture. A prosthetist is a person who designs and fits prostheses.

Exoskeletons in modern and near-future technology

Image:Human exoskeleton.jpg

In the early 2000s a number of companies and research centres developed the first practical models of human exoskeletons. One of the main uses is enabling a soldier to carry heavy weights (50–100 kg) while running or climbing stairs. Most models use a hydraulic system controlled by an on-board computer. They can be powered by an internal combustion engine, batteries or, potentially, fuel cells. Another area of application is medical care, nursing in particular. Faced with the impending shortage of medical professionals and the increasing number of people in elderly care, several teams of Japanese engineers have developed exoskeletons designed to help nurses lift and carry patients.

Commercially-available exoskeletons are expected by the end of 2005 [1].

In the future exoskeletons are expected to become widely used by the military and police in the form of nanotechnological combat clothes. Civilian uses will no doubt be found later. However they will have to compete for adoption with another approach — surgically and genetically enhancing the human body itself by use of artificial bones and muscles.

Human exoskeletons in science fiction

Science fiction authors utilize the idea of personal self-powered exoskeletons, usually referred to as powered armor. They are often robotic in nature. Examples include:

  • The novel The War of the Worlds featured Martians using tripodal powered armors to attack the humans.
  • The novel Starship Troopers details the tactics involved with powered armor.
  • The armour worn by Gray Fox in Metal Gear Solid and Solidus Snake and Raiden (Metal Gear) in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty
  • The loaders used to enable dockyard workers to move heavy weights in Aliens (1986)
  • The Hardman gear Raimi wears in the 1994 movie Death Machine
  • The Armored Personnel Units seen in Matrix Revolutions (2003).
  • Standard issue battle armor in Joe Haldeman's book The Forever War is an exoskeleton using logarithmic force amplification.
  • In the American action cartoon series Centurions, the Centurions used uniform like powered exoframes that has hard points, which enable them to be with merged multiple weapon systems.
  • Exoskeletal vehicles named "E-frames" were one of the central aspects of the American animated television series Exosquad.
  • In comic books, the superheroes Iron Man and War Machine, the supervillain Doctor Doom and countless others wear suits of powered armor which have the equivalent exoskeleton function.
  • In the American action comedy TV series The Greatest American Hero, a regular American school teacher was given a suit by aliens, that enable him to have super powers like Superman, which includes the ability to fly and being resistant to bullet attacks.
  • Not all SF exoskeletons are mechanical, as modification of biological systems can produce similar strength, such as the Pak Protector in Larry Niven's Known Space universe, Jim Shooter's X-O Manowar comic book, and the Guyver Japanese animation series.
  • In Japanese manga Gantz, the characters wear wet suit like exoskeleton, which gives them enormous strength and provides protection.
  • Biological suits known as skins are mentioned in Peter Hamilton's Fallen Dragon.
  • In the Battletech universe, genetically engineered Clan soldiers are bred for strength and other qualities to wear Elemental powered armor. Elemental armor also provides advanced medical technologies to keep the wearer alive in case of severe injury or trauma during combat.
  • Exoskeletons have surfaced in many video games, usually because thicker types of armor must require some mechanical power source. Some examples would be certain marines from Unreal II: The Awakening, MAX Units from Planetside and the Terminators from Warhammer 40000: Dawn of War.
  • Many Japanese animation featuring mechanical objects also have humans controlling gigantic exo-skeletons, such as Escaflowne or Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex. Although many of these are not exactly exoskeletons because of their inhumane forms, the main principle is identical.
  • In Digimon Tamers, the Tamers merged with their Digimon partners, enabling the bodies of their Digimon partners to evolved into the ultimate form, after the merged, the Tamers along with their Digimon partners use the ultimate form bodies like some sort of powered armors. While in Digimon Frontier, the Chosen Children merged with their Digimon Spirits, enabling them to use the bodies of the Digimon Spirit as some sort of powered armor.
  • The character Master Chief from the Halo video game series wears an exoskeleton.
  • Exoskeletal suits named "EMACS" (Energized Monster Armed Containment Suit) or simply power suits are a standard weapon in the animated cartoon series Monster Force.
  • The main protagonists of the anime Bubblegum Crisis wear exosuits in combat.
  • Gordon Freeman's Hazard Suit from Half-Life and Half-Life 2 is an exoskeleton originally designed for extra dimensional survival and exploration.

External links

Biology

Modern technology

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