La Grande Armée
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La Grande Armée (in English, the Big, Great or Grand Army) is the French military term for the main force in a military campaign. In practice, however, the phrase is inextricably linked with the multi-national armies gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the early nineteenth century (see Napoleonic Wars).
Napoleon first attached the name to the army numbering some 200,000 men slated for the invasion of Britain during the period from 1803 to August 1805. The army was assembling at Boulogne on the French coast of the English Channel to this end but was hurriedly ordered across the Rhine into southern Germany by Napoleon upon his discovery the Prussian and Austrian armies were preparing to invade France.
La Grande Armée originally consisted of six corps under the command of Napoleon's marshals. As Napoleon's might spread across Europe, the army grew in size. It reached its maximum size of 600,000 men in 1812 at the start of the invasion of Russia against the Sixth Coalition. At that the army consisted of
- Around 300,000 Frenchmen, Belgians and Dutchmen.
- 95,000 Poles
- 25,000 Italians
- 24,000 Bavarians
- 20,000 Saxons
- 17,000 Westphalians
- 20,000 Prussians
- 35,000 Austrians
- 15,000 Swiss
- 3,500 Croatians
With the exception of the Polish and Austrian corps, each contingent was commanded by French generals.
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Organization
One of the most important factors in the Grande Armée's success was its superior and highly flexable organization. It was subdivided into several Corps (usually from five to seven), each numbering anywhere between 10,000 to 50,000, with the average size being around 20,000 to 30,000 troops. These Corps d'Armée were self-contained, smaller armies of combined arms, consisting of elements from all the forces and support services discussed below, and capable of fully independent operations. But they usually worked in close concert with one another, keeping within a day's marching distance. A Corps was commanded by a Marshal, or General d'Ármee ( General ) or General de Corps ( Lieutenant General ).
Napoleon placed great trust in his Corps commanders and usually allowed them a wide freedom of action, provided they acted within the outlines of his strategic objectives and worked together to accomplish them. When they failed to do this to his satisfaction, however, he would not hestitate to reprimand or relieve them and in many cases take personal command of their Corps himself. Corps were first formed in 1800, when General Moreau divided the Army Of The Rhine into 4 Corps. These were only temporary groupings, however, and it was not until 1804, when Napoleon made them permanent units. He would sometimes form the cavalry into separate Corps, so they would be able to move and mass more quickly without being slowed by the infantry.
The main tactical units of the Corps were the Divisions, of usually from 4,000 to 6,000 infantry or cavalrymen. Which, in turn, were made up of 2 or 3 Brigades of 2 Regiments apiece and supported by an Artillery Brigade, of 3 or 4 Batteries of 4 field cannons and 2 howitzers each (18 to 24 guns in all). The Divisions were also permanent administrative units, commanded by a General de Division ( Major General ) and, likewise, capable of independent actions.
Forces of La Grande Armée
Imperial Guard
Image:Youngguard.jpg France's Imperial Guard was the elite military force of its time and grew out of the Garde des Consuls and Garde Consulaire. It was, quite literally, a Corps d'Armée itself with infantry, cavalry and artillery divisions. Napoleon wanted it also to be the example for the army to follow and as a force that, since it had fought with him over several campaigns, was utterly loyal. Although the infantry was rarely committed, the Guard's cavalry was often thrown in to battle as the killing blow and its artillery used to pound enemies prior to assaults. There were three sections:
- Old Guard: This was the creme de la creme of Napoleon's army. The Old Guard was made up of the longest serving veterans (3-5 campaigns). Napoleon fondly called them, les grognards, the grumblers.
- Middle Guard: Consisted of veterans with 2-3 campaigns.
- Young Guard: Initially was made up of veterans with at least one campaign under their belts as well as bright young officers and the best of the annual intake of conscripts. Later its ranks would be filled almost entirely by select conscripts and volunteers. Known for their enthusiasm more than their combat abilites.
Cavalry
The Grande Armée had four primary types of cavalry, each for different roles:
- Cuirassiers: The heavy cavalry, equipped and armed almost like the knights of old with a heavy cuirass (breastplate) and helmets of brass and iron. As with the knights, they served as the Shock troops of the cavalry. Because of the weight of their armor and weapons, both trooper and horse had to be big and strong, and could consequently put a lot of force behind their charge.
- Dragoons: The medium weight mainstays of the French cavalry, who were used for battle, skirmishing and scouting. They were highly versatile, and armed not only with traditional sabres, but also pistols and carbines, enabling them to fight on foot as infantry as well as mounted. Similar in arms and role to Dragoons were the Carabiniers. However, being more lightly armed, they were less suited for close-quaters, melee combat. This made them less versitile, and therefore less numerous than the Dragoons.
- Hussars: These fast, light cavalrymen were the eyes, ears and egos of Napoleonic armies. Tactically, they were used for reconnaissance, skirmishing and screening for the army to keep their commanders informed of enemy moves while denying the same information to the foe and to pursue fleeing enemy troops. Armed only with sabres and pistols, they had reputations for reckless bravery to the point of being almost suicidal. It was said a Hussar who lived to be 30 was regarded as old, very fortunate and truly elite.
- Lancers: Some of the most feared cavalry in Napoleon's armies were the Polish lancers or Uhlans. These medium cavalry had speed nearly equal to the Hussars and shock power almost as great as the Cuirassiers. Lancers were excellent against infantry in square, where their lances could outreach the infantrys' bayonets, and also in hunting down a routed enemy. They could be deadly against other types of cavalry as well.
Infantry
- Line Infantry: The bulk of the army was made up of standard line infantry, armed with Smoothbore, muzzle loaded flintlock Charleville muskets and bayonets. Infantry regiments were known as demi-brigades (since there were two per brigade) which were composed of three or four battalions. Unlike other armies, whose training focused on moving in rigid formations and firing massed volleys, Napoleon placed emphasis on speed of march and endurance along with individually aimed fire at close range and close quarters combat.
- Light Infantry: Companies of Voltigeurs (Vaulters or Leapers), Chasseurs (Hunters), and Tirailleurs (skirmishers) began to be added to the French line regiments in 1801. They were usually nimble fighters and skilled sharpshooters whose job it was to advance in front of the attack and try to disrupt enemy formations or artillery crews. Later, separate regiments of light infantry were formed.
- Grenadiers: These companies were the heavy Shock troops of the line regiments and (as with the light infantry) sometimes formed into separate regiments. Made up of the largest and fiercest fighters, they were used to spearhead attacks or held back until needed, then thrown against enemy strongpoints or to counter strong attacks.
Artillery
Image:Artillgun1805.jpg As one would expect with the Emperor being a former artillery officer (and one who dubbed it "The Queen Of The Battlefield") France's cannon were the backbone of the Armée's forces, possessing the greatest firepower of the three arms and hence able to inflict the most casualties. The French guns were generally used in massed batteries (or grandes batteries) to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Napoleon to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position, or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines. Besides superior training, Napoleon's artillery was also greatly aided by the numerous technical improvements to French cannons by Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval which made them lighter, faster and much easier to sight, as well as strengthened the carriages and introduced standard sized calibres. In general, French guns were 4-pounders, 8-pounders or 12-pounders and 6-inch howitzers with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels and limbers were painted olive-green. The cavalry were supported by the fast moving, fast firing light guns of the Horse artillery. Each Corps would also usually have its own artillery reserve, of one of more Brigades, armed mostly with the larger, heavier calibre pieces.
Support services
Engineers
While the glory of battle went to the cavalry, infantry and artillery, the bridge builders of the Grande Armée, the pontonniers, were an indispensable part of Napoleon's military machine. Their main contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water obstacles by erecting pontoon bridges. The skills of his pontonniers allowed Napoleon to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from Moscow, saved the army from complete annihilation at the Beresina.
They may not have had the glory, but Napoleon clearly valued his pontonniers and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies, under the command of the brilliant engineer, General Jean Baptiste Eble. His training along with their specialized tools and equipment, enabled them to quickly build the various parts of the bridges, which could then be rapidly assembled and reused later. All the needed materials, tools and parts were carried on their wagon trains. If they did not have a part or item, it could be quickly made using the pontonniers' mobile wagon-mounted forges. A single company of pontonniers could construct a bridge of up to 80 pontoons (a span of some 120 to 150 metres long) in a just under seven hours, an impressive feat even by today's standards.
In addition to the pontonniers, there were companies of Sappers, to deal with enemy fortifications. They were seldom used, however, since the emperor had learned in his early campaigns (such as at the Siege of Acre (1799) ) that it was better to bypass and isolate fixed fortifications, if possible, than to directly assault them. So the sapper companies were usually put to other tasks.
Logistics
"An army is a creature which marches on its stomach" is perhaps Napoleon's most quoted line, and it clearly illustrates the vital importance of supply. The troops of the Grande Armée each carried 4 days' provisions. The supply wagon trains following them carried 8 days', but these were to be consumed only in emergency. Insofar as possible, Napoleon encouraged his men to live off the land through foraging and requisition of food.
Addtional supplies would be stockpiled and stored at forward bases and depots which he would establish before the start of his campaigns. These would then be moved forward as the army advanced. The Armée's supply bases would replenish the Corps and Divisional depots, which in turn would replenish the Brigade and Regimental supply trains, which would distribute rations and ammunitions to the troops as needed to suppliment their foraging. It was this system of planned and improvised logistics, together with Napoleon's forethought, which enabled the Grande Armée to sustain rapid marches of up to 15 miles per day for up to 5 weeks. The logistical system was also aided by a technological innovation in the form of the food preservation technique invented by Nicolas François Appert, which led to modern Canning methods.
Medical staff
The Medical services had the least glory or prestige, yet they were tasked to deal with the full horrors of war's aftermath. Every regiment, division and corps had its own medical staff, consisting of corpsmen to find and transport the wounded, orderlies to provide assistance and nursing functions, surgeons and doctors. These staffs were often filled by poorly-trained and talentless men, unfit for any other work. Conditions in the Grande Armée, as in all armies of the time, were primative at best. Far more soldiers died of their wounds or from sickness than in battle ( See Napoleonic Wars casualties ). There was no knowledge of hygeine or antibiotics. Virtually the only surgical procedure was amputation. The only anesthetic consisted of strong drink or even, in some cases, knocking the patient unconscious. Typically only 1/3 of them survived the operation.
Accounts of the the ordeals of the wounded are horrific reading. Napoleon, himself, once noted "It requires more courage to suffer than to die", so he made sure those who did survive were given the best treatment avalable at the best hospitals in France while they recuperated. In addition, the wounded survivors were often treated as heroes, awarded medals, pensions and provided with prosthetic limbs if needed.
See also
References
- 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March on Moscow, Adam Zamoyski, ISBN 0007123752
- Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns (2nd edition) Owen Connelly. 254 pages. 1999. ISBN 0842027807
