History of Dalmatia

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This is the history of Dalmatia.

Contents

Old Ages

Illyria and the Roman Empire

The history of Dalmatia began when the tribe from which the country derives its name declared itself independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a republic. Its capital was Delminium (near Tomislavgrad); its territory stretched northwards from the river Neretva to the river Cetina, and later to the Krka, where it met the confines of Liburnia.

The Roman Empire began its occupation of Illyria in the year 168 B.C., forming the Roman province of Illyricum. In 156 B.C. the Dalmatians were for the first time attacked by a Roman army and compelled to pay tribute. In AD 10, during the reign of Augustus, Illyricum was split into Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south, after the last of many formidable revolts had been crushed by Tiberius in AD 9. This event was followed by total submission and a ready acceptance of the Latin civilization which overspread Illyria.

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The province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast. Its capital was in the city of Salona (Solin). Emperor Diocletian made Dalmatia famous by building a palace for himself a few kilometers south of Salona, in Aspalathos/Spalatum (Split). Other Dalmatian cities at the time were:

The collapse of the Western Empire left this region subject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer and Theodoric the Great, from 476 to 535, when it was added by Justinian I to the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire.

Middle Ages

Medieval city-states and the country

Following the great Slavic migration into Illyria in the first half of the 7th century, Dalmatia became distinctly divided between two different communities:

  • The hinterland populated by Slavic tribes, besides the Romanicized Illyrian natives (and Celtic in the north)
  • The city-states populated by the native Romance-speaking descendants of Romans and Illyrians, who lived safely in Ragusa (Dubrovnik), Iadera (Zadar), Tragurium (Trogir), Spalatum (Split) and some other coastal towns.

These towns remained powerful because they were highly civilized (because of their connection with the Byzantium) and also fortified. The Slavs were at the time barely in the process of becoming Christianized. The two different communities were frequently hostile at first.

In 806 Dalmatia was temporarily added to the Holy Roman Empire, but the cities were restored to Byzantium by the Treaty of Aachen in 812. The Saracens raided the southernmost cities in 840 and 842, but this threat was eliminated by a common Frankish-Byzantinian campaign of 871.

Since the 830s the northern half of the old province of Dalmatia was controlled by the duchy of Croatia. This duchy was also called Coastal Croatia and Dalmatian Croatia, because its territory covered most of what it used to be ancient Roman Dalmatia. This duchy, and later, kingdom, had its capitals in Dalmatia: Biaći, Nin, Split, Knin, Solin and elsewhere. Also, the Croatian noble tribes, that had a right to choose Croatian duke (later the king), were from Dalmatia: Karinjani and Lapčani, Polečići, Tugomirići, Kukari, Snačići, Gusići, Šubići (from which later developed very powerful noble family Zrinski), Mogorovići, Lačničići, Jamometići and Kačići. Within the borders of ancient Roman Dalmatia, the Croatian nobles of Krk, or Krčki (from which later developed very powerful noble family Frankopan) were from Dalmatia as well.

The establishment of cordial relations between the cities and the Croatian dukedom seriously began with the reign of duke Mislav (835), who signed an official peace treaty with Pietro, doge of Venice in 840 and who also started giving land donations to the churches from the cities.

The southern part of Dalmatia was ruled by the smaller duchies of Pagania/Narenta, Zahumlje/Hum, Travunia and Duklja. Pagania was a minor duchy between Cetina and Neretva. The territories of Zahumlje and Travunia probably spread much further inland and than the current Dalmatia does. Duklja began south of Dubrovnik/Ragusa and spread down to the Skadar Lake. All of these duchies were at the time self-ruled by their Slavic population that was, by religion, mixed pagan and Christian, and by ethnicity could have originated from both Croat and Serb tribes. The four states were collectively referred to as Red Croatia by several historical documents, while the core part of medieval Croatia was called "White Croatia" and located northwest, between Drniš, Knin and Sinj.

The pirates of Pagania/Narenta (named after river Narenta or Neretva), with safe harbors such as the island port of Curzola (Korčula), defeated Venetian fleets dispatched against them in 840 and 887, and for more than a century exacted tribute from the Republic of Venice itself. The doge Peter II Orseolo finally crushed them in 998 and assumed the title duke of the Dalmatians (Dux Dalmatianorum), though without prejudice to Byzantine suzerainty.

Meanwhile the Croatian kings exacted tribute from the Byzantine cities, Tragurium (Trogir), Iadera (Zadar) and others, and consolidated their own power in the purely Croatian-settled towns such as Nin, Biograd and Šibenik. The city of Šibenik was founded by Croatian kings. They also ascertained control over the bordering southern duchies. Rulers of the medieval Croatian state who had control over the Dalmatian littoral and the cities were the dukes Trpimir, Domagoj, Branimir, and the kings Tomislav, Trpimir II, Krešimir I, Stjepan Držislav, Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir.

The Christian schism was an important factor in the history of Dalmatia. While the Croatian church of Nin was under Papal jurisdiction, they still used the Slav liturgy. Both the Latin population of the cities and the Holy See preferred the Latin liturgy, which created tensions between different dioceses. The Croatian population preferred domestic priests, who were married and bearded, and held masses in Croatian language, so they were understood.

The great schism between Eastern and Western Christianity of 1054 further intensified the rift between the coastal cities and the hinterland, with many of the Slavs in the hinterland preferring the Eastern Orthodoxy. Areas of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina also had an indigenous Bosnian Church which was often mistaken for Bogomils.

The Latin influence was increased and the Byzantine practices were further suppressed on the general synods of 1059-1060, 1066, 1075-1076 and on other local synods, notably by demoting the bishopric of Nin, installing the archbishoprics of Spalatum (Split) and Dioclea (Bar), and explicitly forbidding use of any liturgy other than Greek or Latin.

In the period of the rise of the Serbian state of Raška, the Nemanjić dynasty acquired the southern Dalmatian states by the end of the twelfth century, where the population was mixed Catholic and Orthodox, and founded a Serb Orthodox bishopric of Zahumlje with see in Ston. The Nemanjić Serbia controlled several of the southern coastal cities, notably Kotor and Bar.

Dalmatia never attained a political or racial unity and never formed as a nation, but it achieved a remarkable development of art, science and literature. Politically, the Dalmatian city-states were often isolated and compelled to either fall back on the Venetian Republic for support, or tried to make it on their own.

The geographical position of the Dalmatian city states suffices to explain the relatively small influence exercised by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries (535-1102) during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to become merely nominal. The biggest contribution of Byzantine culture in contemporary Croatian culture is the way the name of Jesus is pronounced in standard literary Croatian language - Isus.

The medieval Dalmatia had still included much of the hinterland covered by the old Roman province of Dalmatia - however, the toponym of "Dalmatia" started to shift more towards including only the coastal, Adriatic areas, rather than the mountains inland. By the 15th century, the phrase "Herzegovina" would be introduced, marking the shrink of the borders of Dalmatia to the narrow littoral area.

Rivalry of Venice and Hungary

As the city states gradually lost all protection by Byzantium, being unable to unite in a defensive league hindered by their internal dissensions, they had to turn to either Venice or Hungary for support. Each of the two political factions had support within the Dalmatian city states, based mostly on economic reasons.

The Venetians, to whom the Dalmatians were already bound by language and culture, could afford to concede liberal terms as its main goal was to prevent the development of any dangerous political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic. The seafaring community in Dalmatia looked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In return for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute either in money or in kind. Arbe (Rab), for example, annually paid ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold to Venice.

Hungary, on the other hand, defeated the last Croat king in 1097 and laid claim on all lands of the Croatian noblemen since the treaty of 1102. King Coloman proceeded to conquer Dalmatia in 1102-1105. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior favoured Hungary as their most powerful neighbour on land that affirmed their municipal privileges. Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law remained valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he was unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality.

These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed. Hungarian garrisons were being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered with trade, the appointment of bishops, or the tenure of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred. Even in Zadar four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although Zadar was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritime ascendancy.

The once rival Romanic and Slavic population eventually started contributing to a common civilization, and Dubrovnik was the primary example of this. By the 13th century, the councilmen from Dubrovnik names were mixed, and in the 15th century the literature was largely written in the Slavic language (from which Croatian language is directly descended), and the city was often called by its Slavic name, Dubrovnik.

The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy, and by many outside influences.

The cities of Zadar, Split, Trogir and Dubrovnik and the surrounding territories each changed hands several times between Venice, Hungary and the Byzantium during the 12th century.

In 1202, the armies of the Fourth Crusade rendered assistance to Venice by occupying Zadar for it. In 1204 the same army conquered Byzantium and finally eliminated the Eastern Empire from the list of contenders on Dalmatian territory.

The early 13th century was marked by a decline in external hostilities. The Dalmatian cities started accepting foreign sovereignty (mainly of Venice) but eventually they reverted to their previous desire for independence. The Mongol invasion severely impaired Hungary, so much that in 1241, the king Bela IV had to take refuge in Dalmatia (in the Klis fortress). The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew.

The Croats were no longer regarded by the city folk as a hostile people, in fact the power of certain Croatian magnates, notably the counts Šubić of Bribir, was from time to time supreme in the northern districts (in the period between 1295 and 1328).

In 1346, Dalmatia was struck by the Black Death. The economic situation was also poor, and the cities became more and more dependent on Venice.

Stephen Tvrtko, the founder of the Bosnian kingdom, was able in 1389 to annex the Adriatic littoral between Kotor and Šibenik, and even claimed control over the northern coast up to Rijeka except for the Venetian-ruled Zara (Zadar), and his own independent ally, Dubrovnik. This was only temporary, as the Hungarians and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatia as soon as Tvrtko died in 1391.

An internal struggle of Hungary, between king Sigismund and the Neapolitan house of Anjou, also reflected on Dalmatia: in the early 15th century, all Dalmatian cities welcomed the Neapolitan fleet except for Dubrovnik. The Bosnian duke Hrvoje controlled Dalmatia for the Angevins, but later switched loyalty to Sigismund.

Over the period of twenty years, this struggle weakened the Hungarian influence. In 1409, Ladislaus of Naples sold his rights over Dalmatia to Venice for 100,000 Ducats. Venice gradually took over most of Dalmatia by 1420. In 1437, Sigismund recognized Venetian rule over Dalmatia in return for 100,000 Ducats. The city of Omiš yielded to Venice in 1444, and only Dubrovnik preserved its freedom.

Venetian and Turkish rule

An interval of peace ensued, but meanwhile the Turkish advance continued. Hungary was itself assailed by the Turks, and could no longer afford to try to control Dalmatia. Christian kingdoms and regions in the east fell one by one, Constantinople in 1453, Serbia in 1459, neighbouring Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the Venetian and Ottoman frontiers met and border wars were incessant.

Dubrovnik sought safety in friendship with the invaders, and in one particular instance, actually sold two small strips of its territory (Neum and Sutorina) to the Ottomans in order to prevent land access from the Venetian territory.

In 1508 the hostile League of Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home service, and after the overthrow of Hungary in 1526 the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia by 1537. The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to Venice, the interior forming a Turkish province, governed from the fortress of Klis by a Sanjakbeg (an administrator with military powers).

Christian Croats from the neighbouring lands now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Romanic population even more, and making their language the primary one. The pirate community of the "uskoks" had originally been a band of these fugitives, esp. near Senia; its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and Turkey (1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary manners is presented by the Venetian agents, whose reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of the middle ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that the Dalmatian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at the Battle of Lepanto, for example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy.

A fresh war broke out in 1645, lasting intermittently until 1699, when the peace of Karlowitz gave the whole of Dalmatia to Venice, including the coast of Herzegovina, but excluding the domains of Dubrovnik and the protecting band of Ottoman territory which surrounded them. After further fighting this delimitation was confirmed in 1718 by the Treaty of Passarowitz.

Dalmatia experienced a period of intense economic and cultural growth in the 18th century, given how trade routes with the hinterland were reestablished in peace. Christians also noticeably migrated from the Ottoman-held territory into the Dalmatian cities, sometimes converting from Orthodoxy to Catholicism as well.

Because the Venetians were able to reclaim some of the inland territories in the north during the Turkish wars, the region of Dalmatia was no longer restricted to the coastline and the islands. However, the Venetian influence wasn't as strong in the former southern Dalmatia, meaning that the toponym did not extend inland into areas of Herzegovina or Montenegro.

This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797.

New Era

Dalmatia in Napoleon's times

Later in 1797, in the treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon gave Dalmatia to Austria in return for Belgium. The republics of Dubrovnik and Poljica retained their independence, and Dubrovnik grew rich by its neutrality during the earlier Napoleonic wars.

By the peace of Pressburg in 1805, Istria, Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor were handed over to France as the so-called Illyrian provinces. In 1806, the Republic of Dubrovnik finally succumbed to foreign (French) troops under general Marmont, the same year a Russian force tried to contest the French by seizing Boka Kotorska. The Russians induced the Montenegrins to render aid and they proceeded to take the islands of Korčula and Brač but made no further progress, and withdrew in 1807 under the treaty of Tilsit. Dubrovnik was officially annexed to the Illyrian Provinces in 1808.

In 1809, war again broke out between France and Austria. In the summer, Austrian forces retook Dalmatia, but this lasted only until the Treaty of Schönbrunn in the autumn of the same year. Austria-Hungary declared war on France in 1813, restored control over Dalmatia by 1815 and formed a temporary Kingdom of Illyria. In 1822, this was eliminated and Dalmatia was placed under Austrian administration.

Habsburg/Austrian rule

(Age of national awakening)

After the revolutions of 1848 and particularly since the 1860s, in the age of romantic nationalism, two factions appeared.

The first was the pro-Croatian or unionist one, lead by People's party (Narodna stranka) and Croatian rights' party (Hrvatska stranka prava), which advocated for a reunion of Dalmatia with the remaining part of Croatia that was under Hungarian administration.

The second was the autonomist one, which first advocated a Dalmatian nationality but idea found no ground, so they turned towards the idea of Italianhood and a possible union with the emerging Kingdom of Italy. It is very important to note here that the biggest part of the autonomists were not pure Italians - many Italians have already assimilated into Croats. The 1880 census gives following data for Dalmatia: 371,565 Croats, 78,714 Serbs and 27,305 Italians. The Croat faction won the elections in Dalmatia in 1870, but they couldn't go through with the merger with Croatia due to Austrian intervention.

The political alliances in Dalmatia shifted over time. At the beginning, the unionists and autonomists were allied together, against centralism of Vienna. After a while, when the national question came to prominence, they split. A third splintering happened when the local Orthodox population, few of whom were nationally conscious Serbs, heard of the ideas of Greater Serbia by way of the Serbian Orthodox Church, which acted as Serbia's agit-prop agency abroad. As a result, Serbized Orthodox population started to side with the autonomists and irredentists rather than the unionists.

Newest era

First half of the 20th century

In World War I, Austria-Hungary was defeated and it disintegrated, which helped solve the internal political conflict in Dalmatia.

Under the Treaty of London of 1915, Italy was to attain the northern Dalmatia (including cities of Zadar, Šibenik and Knin), but it occupied even more of it. After the war, Dalmatia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after negotiations, only Zadar and the island of Lastovo remained part of Italy.

When the Banovina Hrvatska was in 1939 formed, the biggest part of Dalmatia was in it.

In April 1941, during World War II, Axis powers invaded and conquered Yugoslavia. A month later, large sections of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy, the rest being formally left to Independent State of Croatia but in reality occupied by Italian forces which later supported Chetniks in Serb-populated areas. This intolerable situation led many Croats from Dalmatia to join resistance movement led by Tito's Partisans.

In September 1943, following the capitulation of Italy, large sections of Dalmatia were liberated by Partisans, only to be reoccupied, this time by Wehrmacht. Still, Tito's partisans were faster in disarming the Italians, that way acquiring a large amount of light and heavy weapons which in turn made them a much stronger opponent. Still, in later stages of war, many Dalmatian Croats went in exile, in fear from Third Reich's vindictive actions, especially after strong rumours that a second front would be formed and that there would be an invasion on the Croatian coast. In the second of half of 1944, Partisans, supplied by the Allies, finally liberated Dalmatia.

After 1945, most of the remaining Italians fled the region. They were treated as remnants of the occupation force and were given an option to leave for Italy. Some died in the so-called foibe, although this was more common in Istria and elsewhere than in Dalmatia.

After the World War II, Dalmatia was divided between three republics of socialist Yugoslavia - almost all of the territory went to Croatia, leaving Boka Kotorska to Montenegro and small strip of coast at Neum to Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Dalmatia in independent Croatia

For a complete account of the War of Independence, see the history of modern Croatia

In 1991, when Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, Croatia declared independence. The Homeland war (Domovinski rat) affected sections of northern Dalmatia, where there lived a significant population of Serbs. They rebelled, under encouragement and with assistance from a variety of Serbian nationalist circles, and seceded into the so-called "Republic of Serbian Krajina" (RSK). The center of the RSK was in the northern Dalmatian town of Knin.

The establishment of the RSK was helped by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), as well as paramilitary troops that came from Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbian forces had a prevalence in equipment and munitions because of JNA support, and they proceeded to commit various acts of terrorism, including shelling attacks on civilian targets.

The Yugoslav People's Army operated from their barracks, that were mostly positioned in bigger cities and stategically important points. In some bigger cities JNA had built large residential blocs, and in the opening stages of the war it was believed that those buildings will be used by sharpshooters or for reconnaisanse purposes. This widespread belief, although justified in few cases, served mostly as an excuse for various Croatian paramilitary and vigilante groups to forcibly evict members of JNA families from their homes, rob their property and sometimes even subject them to torture, rape and murder.

First attempts to take over JNA facilities occured in August in Sinj and failed, but the major action took place in September 1991. Croatian Army and police were then more successful, although most of the objects taken were repair shops, warehouses and similar facilities, either poorly defended or commanded by officers sympathetic to Croatian cause. Major bases, commanded by die-hard officers and manned by reservists from Montenegro and Serbia, became the object of standoffs that usually ended with JNA personnel and equipment being evacuated under supervision of EEC observers. This process was completred shortly after Sarajevo armistice in January 1992.

All non-Serb population was ethnically cleansed from occupied areas, notably the villages of Škabrnja and Kijevo. Croatian refugees, tens of thousands of them, found shelter in many of the Dalmatian coastal towns where they were placed in empty tourist facilities.

By early 1992, the military positions were mostly entrenched, and further expansion of the RSK was stopped. The Serbian forces continued terrorist actions by way of random shelling of Croatian cities, and this continued occasionally over the next four years.

Besides the northern hinterland that bordered with Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav People's Army also occupied sections of southern Dalmatia around Dubrovnik, as well as the islands of Vis and Lastovo. These lasted until 1992.

The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed throughout the UNPA zones, including those in northern Dalmatia, as well as on Prevlaka.

The Croatian goverment gradually restored control over all of Dalmatia, in the following military operations:

  • September 1991: "September War" - successful defence of Šibenik from JNA onslaught and takeover of JNA bases in the area.
  • May and July 1992: Operation Tigar, JNA was forced to retreat from Vis, Lastovo, Mljet and areas around Dubrovnik.
  • July 1992: Miljevci Heights in Šibenik hinterland, near Drniš, were liberated
  • January 1993: Operation Maslenica, Croatian forces liberated Zadar hinterland.
  • In August 1995 Croatian forces conducted Operation Storm, ending Krajina and restoring Croatian sovereignty to international recognised borders.

During Operation Storm majority of Serb population from Krajina has left their homes, while minority of those who stayed - mostly elderly people - were occasionally subjected to acts of murder. Homes left by ethnic Serbs were taken over by ethnic Croatian refugees from Bosnia-Herzegovina with the help and encouragement of Croatian authorities. Through the past decade, number of ethnic Serb refugees have returned and gradually reverted demographic results of war in certain areas, although it is very unlikely that their proportion in region's population will ever reach pre-war level.

Dalmatia has arguably suffered in war more than other Croatian regions, with its infrastructure ruined, while tourism industry - previously the most important source of income - was deeply affected by negative publicity and didn't properly recover until late 1990s. Dalmatian population in general suffered dramatic drop in living standard which created chasm between Dalmatia and relatively more prosperous northern sections of Croatia. This chasm reflected in extreme nationalism enjoying visibly higher levels of support in Dalmatia than in the rest of Croatia, which embraced more moderate course.

This phenomenon manifested not only in Dalmatia being reliable stronghold for HDZ and other Croatian right-wing parties, but also in mass protests against Croatian Army generals being prosecuted for war crimes. Indictment and against General Mirko Norac in early 2001 drew 150,000 people to the streets of Split - which is arguably the largest protest in the history of modern Croatia.

References


External links

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