Indigenous languages of the Americas

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Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made by some linguists, but several of these have not been generally accepted.

Contents

Background

Archeological and DNA evidence suggests that the Americas were peopled by migrants from Siberia about 17,000-10,000 years ago. From Alaska, the descendants of those first migrants went on to people the rest of North and South America. The language or languages spoken by these early migrants, and the process by which the current diversity of indigenous languages in the Americas emerged, are a matter of speculation. Some evidence suggests that the ancestors of the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut speakers arrived separately from Siberia some time after the earliest settlers.

Several indigenous languages of the Americas have developed their own writing systems, including the Mayan languages and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. These and many other indigenous languages later adapted the Roman alphabet or Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. Aleut and Tlingit were first written by missionaries in the Cyrillic Alphabet, and later in the Roman alphabet.

Subsequent to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch were brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, and constitute the official languages of the independent states of the Americas, although Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru have one or more indigenous languages as an official language in addition to Spanish. Several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas from European languages.

The attitudes of the most of the European colonizers and their successor states toward Native American languages ranged from benign neglect to active suppression.

However, the Spanish missionaries preached to the natives in local languages. They actually spread Quechua beyond its original geographic area. Indigenous languages vary greatly in the number of speakers, from Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl with millions of active speakers to a number of languages with only a handful of elderly speakers. Many indigenous languages of the Americas are endangered, and many others are extinct, with no living native speakers.

Language families & isolates by region

Notes:

  • Extinct languages or families are indicated by: (†).
  • The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (e.g. Alacalufan family consists of 2 languages).

South America

Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well-studied in many areas). Therefore many relationships between languages and language families have not determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground.

The list of language families and isolates below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.

Families (south)

  1. Alacalufan (2) (a.k.a. Alacaluf)
  2. Arauan (8) (a.k.a. Arahuan, Arawán, Arauanas) (†)
  3. Araucanian (Chile, Argentina) (2) (a.k.a. Mapudungu, Araucanas)
  4. Arawakan (South America & Caribbean) (60) (a.k.a. Arahuacan, Arawakanas, Maipurean, Maipuran, Maipúrean, Maipureano)
  5. Arutani-Sape (2) (a.k.a. Arutani-sapé)
  6. Aymaran (3) (a.k.a. Jaqi, Aru, Aymara, Jaqaru)
  7. Barbacoan (8) (a.k.a. Barbacoanas)
  8. Bororoan (a.k.a. Boróroan)
  9. Botocudoan (3) (a.k.a. Aimoré)
  10. Cahuapanan (2) (a.k.a. Jebero, Kawapánan, Cahuapananas)
  11. Cariban (29) (a.k.a. Caribe, Carib)
  12. Catacaoan (a.k.a. Katakáoan) (†)
  13. Chapacura-Wanham (9) (a.k.a. Chapacuran, Txapakúran, Chapakúran)
  14. Charruan (a.k.a. Charrúan) (†)
  15. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  16. Chimuan (†)
  17. Chipaya-Uru languages (a.k.a. Uru-Chipaya)
  18. Choco (10) (a.k.a. Chocoan)
  19. Cholonan (†)
  20. Chon (2) (a.k.a. Patagonian)
  21. Guajiboan (4) (a.k.a. Wahívoan) (†)
  22. Guaykuruan (a.k.a. Waikurúan)
  23. Harákmbut (2) (a.k.a. Tuyoneri)
  24. Huarpe (a.k.a. Warpe) (†)
  25. Jirajaran (3) (a.k.a. Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) (†)
  26. Jabutian (a.k.a. Jabutían)
  27. Jê (13) (a.k.a. Gê, Jean, Jêan, Gêan, Je, Ye)
  28. Jivaroan (4) (a.k.a. Hívaro)
  29. Kamakanan (a.k.a. Kamakánan) (†)
  30. Karajá
  31. Katukinan (3) (a.k.a. Catuquinan)
  32. Maku (6)
  33. Mascoyan (5) (a.k.a. Maskóian, Mascoian)
  34. Mataco-Guaicuru (11)
  35. Maxakalían (a.k.a. Mashakalían)
  36. Mosetenan (a.k.a. Mosetén)
  37. Muran (4) (a.k.a. Mura)
  38. Nambiquaran (5)
  39. Otomacoan (2) (a.k.a. Otomákoan) (†)
  40. Paezan (4)
  41. Panoan (a.k.a. Pánoan)
  42. Peba-Yaguan (2) (a.k.a. Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban) (†)
  43. Puinavean (a.k.a. Makú)
  44. Purian (a.k.a. Purían) (†)
  45. Quechuan (46)
  46. Salivan (2) (a.k.a. Sálivan)
  47. Tacanan (a.k.a. Takánan)
  48. Timotean (2) (a.k.a. Timoteano, Timoteana, Timótean) (†)
  49. Tiniguan (2) (a.k.a. Tiníwan) (†)
  50. Tucanoan (25) (a.k.a. Tukánoan)
  51. Tupian (70)
  52. Witotoan (6) (a.k.a. Huitotoan, Bora-Witótoan)
  53. Yanomaman (4)
  54. Zamucoan (2)
  55. Zaparoan (7) (a.k.a. Sáparoan)

Isolates or unclassified (south)

  1. Aguano (†)
  2. Ahuaqué (a.k.a. Auaké, Uruak, Awaké)
  3. Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia)
  4. Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (a.k.a. Andoke)
  5. Andoquero (†)
  6. Aushiri (a.k.a. Auxira)
  7. Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (a.k.a. Baenán, Baenã) (†)
  8. Betoi (Columbia) (a.k.a. Betoy, Jirara) (†)
  9. Callahuaya
  10. Camsá (Colombia) (a.k.a. Sibundoy, Coche, Kamsá)
  11. Candoshi (a.k.a. Maina, Kandoshi)
  12. Canichana (Bolivia) (a.k.a. Canesi, Kanichana)
  13. Carabayo
  14. Cayubaba (Bolivia)
  15. Chiquitano
  16. Coeruna (Brazil) (†)
  17. Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador) (a.k.a. Kofán)
  18. Cueva
  19. Culle (Peru) (a.k.a. Culli, Linga, Kulyi)
  20. Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (a.k.a. Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) (†)
  21. Esmeralda language (a.k.a. Takame) (†)
  22. Fulnió
  23. Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) (†)
  24. Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) (†)
  25. Guamo (Venezuela) (a.k.a. Wamo) (†)
  26. Guató
  27. Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†)
  28. Huarpe (Warpe)
  29. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  30. Itonama (Bolivia) (a.k.a. Saramo, Machoto)
  31. Jeikó (†)
  32. Jotí (Venezuela) (a.k.a. Hotí, Waruwaru)
  33. Kaimbe
  34. Kaliana (a.k.a. Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)
  35. Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (a.k.a. Kanoé, Kapishaná)
  36. Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) (†)
  37. Katembrí (†)
  38. Kawésqar (Alacaluf, Alakaluf, Kawaskar, Kawesqar, Qawasqar, Qawashqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine, Chono, Caucau, Kaueskar, Aksanás, Kaweskar, Kawéskar, Kakauhau, Kaukaue)
  39. Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia) (†)
  40. Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) (†)
  41. Leco language (Lapalapa, Leko) (†)
  42. Lule (†)
  43. Maku language (a.k.a. Macu)
  44. Malibú (a.k.a. Malibu)
  45. Matanawí (†)
  46. Mocana
  47. Movima (Bolivia)
  48. Munichi (Peru) (a.k.a. Muniche)
  49. Mutú (a.k.a. Loco)
  50. Muzo (†)
  51. Nambiquaran (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  52. Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†)
  53. Nonuya (Peru)
  54. Ofayé
  55. Old Catío-Nutabe (Colombia) (†)
  56. Omurano (Peru) (a.k.a. Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) (†)
  57. Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) (†)
  58. Pakarara (†)
  59. Palta
  60. Panche (†)
  61. Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) (†)
  62. Pantagora (†)
  63. Panzaleo (Ecuador) (a.k.a. Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo)
  64. Patagón
  65. Pijao
  66. Puelche (a.k.a. Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) (†)
  67. Puquina (Bolivia) (†)
  68. Resígaro (Colombia-Peru border area)
  69. Rikbaktsá
  70. Sabela (Ecuador, Peru) (a.k.a. Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka)
  71. Sechura language (Atalan, Sec) (†)
  72. Salumã (Brazil)
  73. Tairona (Colombia) (†)
  74. Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) (†)
  75. Taruma (†)
  76. Taushiro (Peru) (a.k.a. Pinchi, Pinche)
  77. Tequiraca (Peru) (a.k.a. Tekiraka, Avishiri) (†)
  78. Teushen (†) (Patagonia, Argentina)
  79. Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (a.k.a. Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)
  80. Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
  81. Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) (†)
  82. Urarina (a.k.a. Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)
  83. Vilela
  84. Wakona (†)
  85. Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (a.k.a. Guarao)
  86. Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (a.k.a. Shokó) (†)
  87. Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) (†)
  88. Yámana (Chile) (a.k.a. Yagan, Yahgan, Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana)
  89. Yaruro (a.k.a. Jaruro)
  90. Yuracare (Bolivia)
  91. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (a.k.a. Jurí) (†)
  92. Yurumanguí (Colombia) (a.k.a. Yurimangui, Yurimangi) (†)

Mexico and Central America

Families (central)

  1. Algic (North America & Mexico) (29)
  2. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  3. Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3)
  4. Guaicurian (8) (a.k.a. Waikurian)
  5. Jicaquean
  6. Lencan
  7. Mayan (31)
  8. Misumalpan
  9. Mixe-Zoquean (19)
  10. Na-Dené (North America & Mexico) (40)
  11. Oto-Manguean (27)
  12. Tequistlatecan (3)
  13. Totonacan (2)
  14. Uto-Aztecan (North America & Mexico) (33)
  15. Xincan
  16. Yuman-Cochimí (North America & Mexico) (11)

Isolates or unclassified (central)

  1. Alagüilac (Guatemala)
  2. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  3. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  4. Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero)
  5. Huetar (Costa Rica)
  6. Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
  7. Maratino (northeastern Mexico)
  8. Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas)
  9. Quinigua (northeast Mexico)
  10. Seri (Mexico: Sonora)
  11. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  12. Tarascan (Mexico: Michoacán) (a.k.a. Purépecha, Tarasco)

Greenland, Canada & USA

Image:Langs N.Amer.png

There are approximately 275 spoken (or formerly spoken) North American languages north of Mexico.

Families (north)

  1. Algic (30)
  2. Alsean (2)
  3. Caddoan (5)
  4. Chimakuan (2)
  5. Chinookan (3)
  6. Chumashan (6)
  7. Comecrudan (North America & Mexico) (3)
  8. Coosan (2)
  9. Eskimo-Aleut (7)
  10. Iroquoian (11)
  11. Kalapuyan (3)
  12. Keresan (2)
  13. Kiowa-Tanoan (7)
  14. Maiduan (4)
  15. Muskogean (6)
  16. Na-Dené (North America & Mexico) (40)
  17. Palaihnihan (2)
  18. Plateau Penutian (4) (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan)
  19. Pomoan (7)
  20. Salishan (23)
  21. Shastan (4)
  22. Siouan-Catawban (16)
  23. Tsimshianic (2)
  24. Utian (12)
  25. Uto-Aztecan (33)
  26. Wakashan (6)
  27. Wintuan (4)
  28. Yokutsan (3)
  29. Yuman-Cochimí (11)

Isolates or unclassified (north)

  1. Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  2. Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  3. Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland)
  4. Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington)
  5. Chimariko (US: California)
  6. Chitimacha (US: Louisiania)
  7. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  8. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  9. Esselen (US: California)
  10. Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
  11. Karankawa (US: Texas)
  12. Karuk (a.k.a. Karok) (US: California)
  13. Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
  14. Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana)
  15. Salinan (US: California)
  16. Siuslaw (US: Oregon)
  17. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  18. Takelma (US: Oregon)
  19. Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia)
  20. Tonkawa (US: Texas)
  21. Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)
  22. Wappo (US: California)
  23. Washo (US: California, Nevada)
  24. Yana (US: California)
  25. Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
  26. Yuki (US: California)
  27. Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)

Language stock proposals

Many hypothetical language phylum proposals concerning American languages are often cited as uncontroversially demonstrated in more popular writings. However, many of these proposals have, in fact, not been fully demonstrated if even at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (e.g. the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (e.g. Hokan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock"). Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (e.g. Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals:

  1. Ahuaque-Kalianan
  2. Algonkian-Gulf   (= Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)
  3. Almosan   (= Algic + Kutenai + Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
  4. Almosan-Keresiouan (= Almosan + Keresiouan)
  5. Amerind   (= all languages excepting Eskimo-Aleut & Nadene)
  6. Aztec-Tanoan   (= Uto-Aztecan + Kiowa-Tanoan)
  7. Chibchan stock
  8. Chibchan-Paezan
  9. Chikitano-Boróroan
  10. Coahuiltecan   (= Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)
  11. Cunza-Kapixanan
  12. Dene-Caucasian
  13. Esmeralda-Yaruroan
  14. Guamo-Chapacuran
  15. Gulf   (= Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)
  16. Hokan   (= Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman-Cochimí + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)
  17. Hokan-Siouan   (= Hokan + Subtiaba-Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Keresan + Tunican + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Siouan-Catawba + Yuchi + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)
  18. Javaroan-Cahuapanan
  19. Je-Tupi-Carib
  20. Kalianan
  21. Kaweskar language area
  22. Keresiouan   (= Keres + Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Yuchi)
  23. Lule-Vilelan
  24. Macro-Andean
  25. Macro-Arawakan
  26. Macro-Carib
  27. Macro-Jê (a.k.a. Macro-Ge)
  28. Macro-Katembrí-Taruma
  29. Macro-Kulyi-Cholónan
  30. Macro-Lekoan
  31. Macro-Mayan
  32. Macro-Otomákoan
  33. Macro-Paesan
  34. Macro-Panoan
  35. Macro-Puinávean
  36. Macro-Siouan   (= Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)
  37. Macro-Tekiraka-Kanichana
  38. Macro-Tucanoan
  39. Macro-Tupí-Karibe
  40. Macro-Waikurúan
  41. Macro-Warpean
  42. Mosan   (= Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
  43. Mosetén-Chonan
  44. Mura-Matanawian
  45. (Sapir's) Nadene (including Haida)   (= Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)
  46. Nostratic-Amerind
  47. Paezan-Barbacoan
  48. Pano-Tacanan
  49. Penutian   (= many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)
    1. California Penutian   (= Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)
    2. Oregon Penutian   (= Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)
    3. Mexican Penutian   (= Mixe-Zoque + Huave)
  50. Quechumaran
  51. Takelman   (= Takelma + Kalapuyan)
  52. Tunican   (= Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)
  53. Wappo-Yukian   (= Wappo + Yukian)
  54. Yok-Utian   (= Yokutsan + Utian)
  55. Yuri-Ticunan
  56. Zaparoan-Yaguan

Good discussions of past proposals are found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).

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Pidgins, mixed languages, & trade languages

  1. Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
  2. Hudson Strait Pidgin
  3. Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
  4. Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
  5. Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
  6. Haida Jargon
  7. Chinook Jargon
  8. Nootka Jargon
  9. Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
  10. Kutenai Jargon
  11. Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux)
  12. Inuktitut-English Pidgin
  13. Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
  14. Bungee (a.k.a. Bungi) (?)
  15. Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa)
  16. Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
  17. Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
  18. American Indian Pidgin English
  19. Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware)
  20. Pidgin Massachusett
  21. Jargonized Powhatan
  22. Ocaneechi
  23. Lingua Franca Creek
  24. Lingua Franca Apalachee
  25. Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)
  26. Güegüence-Nicarao
  27. Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
  28. Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
  29. Guajiro-Spanish
  30. Media Lengua
  31. Catalangu
  32. Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya jargon)
  33. Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
  34. Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)

Unattested languages

Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.

Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

Linguistic areas

The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or Sprachbunds (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity, and also to help differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The following tentative list of linguistic areas is based on primarily Campbell (1997):

See also

External links

Bibilography

  • Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1-7.
  • Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
  • Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713-726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton.
  • Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3-29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-1100-9846-6.
  • Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
  • Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
  • Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13-67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-2927-0414-3.
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