People's Republic of Mongolia
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The People's Repubic of Mongolia (Mongolian: Бугд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс (БНМАУ)) was a communist state in central Asia which existed between 1924 and 1990. Throughout its history, the state remained firmly Stalinist and an ally of the Soviet Union. It existed in the region known as Outer Mongolia.
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Formation
Outer Mongolia was a Manchu outerland (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-1919), and again a Chinese province (1919-1921). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.
Between 1911 and 1919, Mongolia was a puppet state of Russia. However, Russia's entry into the First World War and political unrest led to a relaxation of Russian control. The Russian revolution of 1917 and the resulting civil war allowed Chinese warlords an opportunity to reestablish their rule in Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Mongolia declared independence from China (for the second time) on March 13, 1921 after Roman von Ungern-Sternberg's troops drove the Chinese out of the Mongolian capital of Urga. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian and Sternberg's forces in the early 1920s, and the occupation of Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924, under the control of a communist regime dominated by the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP).
Consolidation of power (1925 - 1938)
Between 1925 and 1928, the new regime became established. However, a considerable inter-party power struggle between pro-Soviet and independent minded factions took place. Peljidiyn Genden, an independent thinker and moderate communist, led Mongolia from 1932 to 1936. Genden scaled back the implementation of a command economy, refused permission for Soviet troops to be based in Mongolia, and refused an order from Stalin to "liquidate" Buddhist monks. In 1936, Horloogiyn Choybalsan became the leader of the MPRP and the government with Soviet backing. Genden was arrested and executed, and his followers were sidelined. Choybalsan was a follower of Joseph Stalin and emulated many of the policies Stalin implemented in the USSR in Mongolia. The MPRP gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. During this period, the nation still remained largely nomadic and illiterate. There was no industry. What little wealth the country posessed was controlled by the aristocracy and the religious establishment.
Unfortunately for the regime, the MPRP lacked popular support. Obediance to traditional authorities (such as tribal leaders) was widespread, the party lacked grassroots support, and the government had little organization or experience. In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the government applied extreme measures which attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country: the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their methods led to anticommunist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed especially at the Lamaist monasteries resulted in the destruction of all but four monasteries and killing of more than 10,000 people.
World War II (1939-1945)
During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939 at the Battle of Halhin Gol, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.
In late 1945, the Soviet Union used Mongolia as a base for launching Operation August Storm, a successful attack against the Japanese. The preceding buildup brought 1.5 million Soviet soldiers to Mongolia, along with massive amounts of equipment. The Mongolian army played a limited support role in the conflict.
Cold War politics (1945 - 1985)
Choybalsan died in Moscow in 1952. He was succeded by Yumjaagiyn Tsedenbal, another Soviet loyalist. Following Nikita Kruschev's denounciation of the policies of Joseph Stalin, the Mongolian government did the same of Choybalsan in 1956. The personality cult of Choybalsan was condemned as were many of his hardline policies.
Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new Communist states in Eastern Europe. Mongolia and the People's Republic of China recognized each other in 1949, and China renounced all territorial pretensions towards Outer Mongolia. China even provided laborers to help construct much of the infrastructure built in the postwar period. Mongolia also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.
In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet dispute; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced largescale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier. Relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.
Collapse (1985 - 1990)
After Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the USSR, he implemented the policies of Perestroika and Glasnost. The relaxing atmosphere in the Soviet Union prompted a similar relaxation in Mongolia. Following mass demonstrations in the winter of 1990, the MPRP began to loosen its controls of the political system. The politburo of the MPRP resigned in March, and in May the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president. On July 29, 1990, the first free, multiparty elections in Mongolia were held. The election results returned a majority for the MPRP, which won with 85% of the vote. It was not unitl 1996 that the reformed MPRP would be voted out of office.
