Portuguese Empire
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The Portuguese empire was one of the earliest Global Empires. After its Reconquista culminated in 1272, Portugal focused its territorial expansion in the Atlantic Ocean. Portuguese captured Ceuta in 1415 and discovered the islands of Madeira in 1418 and Azores in 1432. Great sailors as Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama explored of the sea route around Africa to India, whereas other important Portuguese sailors as Magallanes, Quirós or Torres worked for the Spanish Empire in the Pacific Ocean. The throne of Portugal was held by the Habsburg Spain from 1580 to 1640.
In the XVIII century, Portuguese colonial ambitions centred in Brazil and a few bases in Africa and Asia.
In 1822, Brazil declared independence and the Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there.
After World War II, Portugal began abandoning their colonies. The Portuguese overseas empire finally came to an end when Portugal handed Macau over to China in 1999.
Contents |
The beginnings of the empire (1415-1580)
The countries that we now know as Spain and Portugal spent the Middle Ages after 722 in an intermittent struggle called the Reconquista. This struggle pitted the northern Christian kingdoms against the Islamic kingdoms of the South and among themselves.
The Portuguese Reconquista culminated in 1272 with the conquest of Algarve by Afonso III, setting Portuguese borders almost in the Iberian Peninsula. During the 15th century, the Crown of Aragon and Portugal expanded territorially seawards (Castille did not complete the conquest of the last Moorish stronghold at Granada until 1492). Aragonese Empire, who has finished his Reconquista in 1266, focused in the Mediterranean and Portuguese Empire, in the Atlantic Ocean.
Portuguese soldiers captured Ceuta (on the North African coast) in 1415 and again defeated the Moors, who attempted to re-take it in 1418.
In 1419 two of the captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to Madeira. In 1427, another portuguese captain discovered the Azores.
In an expedition to Tangier, undertaken in 1436 by King Edward (1433-1438), the Portuguese army was defeated, and could only escape destruction by surrendering as a hostage Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother. By sea Prince Henry's captains continued their exploration of Africa and the Atlantic Ocean. In 1433 Cape Bojador was doubled; in 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon; and slave trading soon became one of the most profitable branches of Portuguese commerce. The Senegal was reached in 1445, Cape Verde was passed in the same year, and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone.
Meanwhile colonization progressed in the Azores from 1439 and Madeira, where sugar and wine were now produced by people from Portugal, France and the Flanders; above all, the gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese. It had become clear that, apart from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of discovery were highly profitable. Under Alphonso V (1443-1481), surnamed the African, the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine, and three expeditions (1458, 1461, 1471) were sent to Morocco; in 1471 Arzila (Asila) and Tangier were captured from the Moors.
Under John II (1481-1495) the fortress of São Jorge da Mina, the modern Elmina, was founded for the protection of the Guinea trade in. Diogo Cão, or Can, discovered the Congo in 1482 and reached Cape Cross in 1486.
Portuguese ships organized by Henry the Navigator explored the west coast of Africa, mapping territory and pursuing trade, particularly in gold and slaves. By 1487, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498 Vasco da Gama reached India and established the first Portuguese outposts there. The discovery of the sea route around Africa to India and the rest of Asia opened enormous opportunities to trade for Portugal, which it aggressively pursued with the establishment of both trade outposts and fortified bases.
In East Africa, small Islamic states along the coast of Mozambique, Kilwa, Brava and Mombasa were destroyed, or either became subjects or allies of Portugal. Pêro da Covilhã had reached Ethiopia as early as 1490; a diplomatic mission reached the ruler of that nation October 19, 1520. Explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on April 22, 1500 in what is today Porto Seguro, Brazil and temporary trading posts were established earlier to collect brazilwood, used as a dye. In the Arabian Sea, Socotra was occupied in 1506, and in the same year D. Lourenço d'Almeida visited Ceylon. In the Indian Ocean, one of Pedro Álvares Cabral's ships discovered Madagascar, which was partly explored by Tristão da Cunha (1507), whilst Mauritius was discovered in 1507.
The Portuguese empire was guaranteed by the Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain, and Portugal established trading ports at far-flung locations like Goa, Malacca, the Maluku Islands, Macau, and Nagasaki. Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade among different regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, as the spanish Francis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman Catholic Christianity to Asia with mixed success.
In 1503, an expedition under Gonçalo Coelho discovered that the French were making incursions to the land what is today Brazil and looting it. In 1530 there was a new expedition from Martim Afonso de Souza to patrol the entire coast, banish the French, and to create the first colonial towns: São Vicente at the coast, and São Paulo on the border of the altiplane. In 1549, Tomé de Sousa, the first Governor-General was sent to Brazil. He built the capital of Brazil, Salvador at the Bay of All Saints. The first Jesuits arrived the same year.
From 1565 through 1567 Mem de Sá, a Portuguese colonial official and the third Governor General of Brazil, successfully destroyed a ten year old French colony called France Antarctique, at Guanabara Bay. He and his nephew, Estácio de Sá, then founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1567.
Having established some cities, Portugal started the colonization of Brazil. Having no means to administer the new colony, the king of Portugal divided the land in 15 "Capitanias Hereditárias" ("heritage captainships"), that were given to anyone who wanted to administer and explore them. From the 15 original Capitanias, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. With permanent settlement came the establishment of the sugar cane industry and its intensive labor demands which were met with Native American and later African slaves.
In 1578, the Portuguese crusaders crossed into Morocco and were routed by Ahmed Mohammed of Fez, at Alcazarquivir (Field of the Three Kings). Sebastian of Portugal was almost certainly either killed in battle, or subsequently executed. This battle marked the end of Portugal as global ambitions.
The Habsburg kings (1580-1640)
From 1580 to 1640, the throne of Portugal was held by the Habsburg kings of Spain. In 1583 Philip II of Spain as king of Portugal sent his combined Iberian fleet to clear the French traders from the Azores, decisively hanging his prisoners-of-war from the yardarms and contributing to the "Black Legend". The Azores were the last part of Portugal to resist Philip's reign over Portugal.
In the Americas, the Portuguese expansion continue beyond the west side by the Tordesilhas meridiant. Portugal was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists of France Équinoxiale in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land.
1627 saw the collapse of the Castilian economy. The Dutch, who during the Twelve Years’ Truce had made their navy a priority, devastated Spanish maritime trade after the resumption of war, on which Spain was wholly dependent after the economic collapse. Even with a seemingly endless roll call of victories Spanish resources were now fully stretched across Europe and also at sea protecting their vital shipping against the greatly improved Dutch fleet. Spain's enemies, such as the Netherlands and England, coveted its overseas wealth, and in many cases found it easier to attack poorly-defended Portuguese outposts than Spanish ones. The Spanish were simply no longer able to cope with naval threats.
Between 1638 and 1640 the Netherlands came to control part of Brazil's Northeast region, with their capital in Recife. The Portuguese and Spanish won a significant victory in the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. By 1654, the Netherlands had surrendered and returned control of all Brazilian land to the Portuguese.
Although Dutch colonies in Brazil were wiped out, during the course of the 17th century the Dutch were able to occupy Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, and the East Indies, and to take over the trade with Japan at Nagasaki. Portugal's Far Eastern territories were reduced to bases at Macau and East Timor.
The Empire of Brazil (1640-1822)
In 1661 the Portuguese gave Bombay to England as part of a dowry, and over the next hundred years the British became the dominant power in India, excluding other powers almost completely from trading there. Portugal was able to cling onto Goa and several minor bases through the remainder of the colonial period.
In 1755 Lisbon suffered a catastrophic earthquake, which together with a subsequent tsunami killed more than 100,000 people out of a population of 275,000. This sharply checked Portuguese colonial ambitions in the late 18th century.
Although initially less important, Brazil would become the main centre for Portuguese colonial ambitions, from which Portugal gathered resources such as gold, precious stones, sugar cane, coffee and other cash crops. Voluntary immigration from Europe and the slave trade from Africa increasing its population immensely (today Brazil is the largest Portuguese-speaking country in the world).
Unlike the Spanish, Portuguese did not divide its colonial territory in America. The captaincies there created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon.
In 1789, there was the Inconfidência Mineira, a rebel movement that failed, and the leader of which, Tiradentes, was hanged.
In 1808, the French troops of Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal, and Dom João, governor in place of his mother, Dona Maria I, ordered the transfer of the royal court to Brazil. Brazil was elevated to the condition of a Reino Unido de Portugal e Algarve (1815). There was also the election of Brazilian representatives to the Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas (Portuguese Constitutional Courts).
The King of Portugal, fleeing before Napoleon's army, moved the seat of government to Brazil in 1808. Brazil thereupon became a kingdom under Dom João VI. Although the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to a growing desire for independence amongst Brazilians, In 1822, the son of Dom João VI, then prince-regent Dom Pedro I, proclaimed the independence, September 7, 1822, and was crowned emperor.
The African Empire (1822-1945)
By the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portuguese territories eventually included the modern nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique.
Decline and Fall (1945-1999)
In the wake of World War II, other European nations began abandoning their colonies either voluntarily or involuntarily. Portugal refused to enter this process voluntarily, and was the last nation to retain its major colonies. In 1961, Goa and the rest of Portuguese India were occupied and annexed by India. In Portuguese Africa a decade-long war broke out with various resistance groups, in great part a consequence of the "proxy war" between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
In fact, it was the Cold War that destroyed the Portuguese empire, as the USA and USSR tried to increase their spheres of influence. The cost of the unsuccessful war against the various guerilla movements overseas eventually led to collapse of the Salazar regime in 1974 (the "Carnation Revolution"). One of the first acts of the democratic government which then came into power was to end the wars and negotiate Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. In both Mozambique and Angola a civil war promptly broke out, with incoming communist governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries) fighting against insurgent groups supported by nations like Zaire, South Africa, and the United States.
East Timor also became independent at this time, but was promptly invaded by neighbouring Indonesia, which occupied it until 1999.
The Portuguese overseas empire finally came to an end when Portugal handed Macau over to China in 1999 under the terms of a negotiated agreement similar to the one under which the United Kingdom handed over Hong Kong.
The seven former colonies of Portugal that are now independent nations, together with Portugal, are members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP).
Territories of the Portuguese empire
- Angola/Portuguese West Africa - colony (1575-1589); crown colony (1589-1951); overseas province (1951-1975). Independence in 1975.
- Arguin/Arguim - (1455-1633)
- Azores - colonies (1427-1766); captaincy-general (1766-1831); overseas district (1831-1976). Made an autonomous region in 1976.
- Brazil - possession known as Ilha de Santa Cruz, later Terra de Vera Cruz (1500-1530); colony (1530- 1714); vice-kingdom (1714-1815); kingdom under United Kingdom of Portugal (1815-1822), independence in 1822.
- Cabinda - protectorate (1883-1887); Congo district (1887-1921); intendancy subordinate to Maquela (1921-1922); dependency of Zaire district (1922-1930); Intendacy of Zaire and Cabinda (1930-1932); intendancy under Angola (1932-1934); dependancy under Angola (1934-1945); restored as District (1946-1975). Controlled by Frente Nacional para a Libertação de Angola (National Liberation Front of Angola) as part of independent Angola in 1975. Declared Cabinda a Republic in 1975, but not recognized by Portugal nor Angola.
- Cabo Verde/Cape Verde - settlements (1462-1495); dominion of crown colonies (1495-1587); crown colony (1587-1951); overseas province (1951-1974); autonomous republic (1974-1975). Independence in 1975.
- Ceuta - possession (1415-1640). Became Spanish colony in 1640.
- Ceylon - colony (1597-1658). Dutch took control in 1656, Jaffna taken in 1658.
- Fernando Póo and Annobón - colonies (1474-1778). Ceded to Spain in 1778.
- French Guiana - occupation (1809-1817). Restored to France in 1817.
- Portuguese Gold Coast - (1482-1642), ceded to Dutch Gold Coast in 1642
- Guiné Portuguesa/Portuguese Guinea - colony (1879-1951); overseas province (1951-1974). Unilateral independence declared in 1973, recognized by Portugal in 1974.
- Hormuz/Ormuz - possession subordinate to Goa (1515-1622). Incorporated into Persia in 1622.
- Macau/Macao - settlement (1553-1557), leased territory subordinated to Goa (1557-1844); overseas province (1844-1883); combined overseas province with Timor-Leste under Goa (1883-1951); overseas province (1951-1975); overseas territory (1975-1999). Returned to the China as a special administrative region in 1999.
- Madeira - possession (1418-1420); colony (1420-1580); crown colony (1580-1834); overseas district (1834-1976). Made an autonomous region in 1976.
- Malacca - settlement (1511-1641); lost to the Dutch
- Mombassa - occupation (1593-1638); colony subordinate to Goa (1638-1698; 1728-1729). Under Omani sovereignty in 1729.
- Moluccas
- Morocco enclaves
- Aguz/Souira Guedima (1506-1525)
- Alcacer Ceguer/El Qsar es Seghir (1458-1550)
- Arzila/Asilah (1471-1550; 1577-1589). Restored to Morocco in 1589.
- Azamor/Azemmour (1513-1541). City restored to Morocco in 1541.
- Mazagan/El Jadida (1485-1550); possession (1506-1769). Incorporation into Morocco in 1769.
- Safim/Safi (1488-1541)
- Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué/Agadir (1505-1541)
- Moçambique (Mozambique/Portuguese East Africa) - possession (1498-1501); subordinate to Goa (1501-1569); captaincy-general (1569-1609); colony subordinate to Goa (1609-1752); colony (1752-1951); overseas province (1951-1974); local administration (1974-1975). Independence in 1975.
- Muscat - possession (1515-1650)
- Nova Colônia do Sacramento - colony (1680; 1683-1705; 1715-1777). Ceded to Spain in 1777.
- Índia Portuguesa/Portuguese India - overseas province (1946-1962). Annexed by India in 1962 and recognised by Portugal in 1974.
- Baçaim/Bassein - possession (1535-1739)
- Cannanore - possession (1502-1663)
- Cochin - possession (1500–1663)
- Cranganore - possession (1536-1662)
- Damão/Daman - acquisition in 1559. Became part of overseas province in 1946.
- Diu - acquisition in 1535. Became part of overseas province in 1946.
- Dadra - acquisition in 1779. Occupied by India in 1954.
- Goa - colony (1510-1946). Became part of overseas province in 1946.
- Nagar Haveli - acquisition in 1779. Occupied by India in 1954.
- Quilon - possession (1502-1661)
- São Tomé de Meliapore - settlement (1523-1662; 1687-1749)
- São João Baptista de Ajudá - fort subordinate to Brazil (1721-1730); subordinate to São Tomé e Príncipe (1865-1869). Annexed by Dahomey in 1961.
- São Tomé e Príncipe - crown colony (1753-1951); overseas province (1951-1971); local administration (1971-1975). Independence in 1975.
- Socotra - possession (1506-1511). Became part of Mahri Sultanate of Qishn and Suqutra.
- Tangier - possession (1471-1662). Ceded to England in 1662.
- Timor-Leste (East-Timor) - colony subordinate to Portuguese India (1642-1844); subordinate to Macau (1844-1896); separate colony (1896-1951); overseas territory (1951-1975); republic and unilateral indepedence proclaimed, annexed by Indonesia (1975-1999, UN recognition as Portuguese territory). UN administration from 1999 until independence in 2002.
- Zanzibar - possession (1503-1698). Became part of Oman in 1698.
See also
External links
- Portuguese Empire Timeline
- Japanese Screen Painting of the Portuguese in the Indies(Enlarge)
- Dutch Portuguese Colonial HistoryDutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
- Current and Former Colonies and Possessions of Portugual from World Statesmen
- The Portuguese and the East (in Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese and Thai) with English introduction.
