Shark
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- For other uses, see Shark (disambiguation).
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Hexanchiformes |
Sharks are a group (superorder Selachimorpha) of fish, with a full cartilaginous skeleton, a streamlined body plan with between 5 and 7 gill slits along the sides (most often) or side of the head (the first modified slit is behind the eye and called a spiracle), dermal denticles covering the body to protect from parasites, and rows of replaceable teeth in the mouth.
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Characteristics
Sharks have keen olfactory senses, with some species able to detect as little as one part per million blood in seawater. They are even more attracted to the chemicals found in the gut of many species, and often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as Nurse Sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey. Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to their marine environment. Some sharks have stronger nocturnal adaptations, allowing them to see in dark conditions, and some have nictitating membranes to protect the eyes during predation. Sharks generally rely on their superior sense of smell to find prey, but once they are close they also use the lateral lines running along their sides to sense movement in the water and also employ special sensory pores on their heads to detect electrical pulses created by the muscles of prey. Their teeth are not attached to the jaw, but embedded in their flesh, and in many species are constantly replaced throughout the shark's life. The lower teeth are primarily used for holding prey, while the top are used for cutting into it. (Gilbertson, 7.3)
There are exceptions to the "large", "marine" (as in 'ocean-going') and "predatory" portions of the characterization. Sharks include everything from the hand-sized pygmy shark, a deep sea species, to the whale shark, the largest fish (although sharks are not closely related to bony fish) which is believed to grow to a maximum length of 18m (59 feet) and which, like the great whales, feeds only on plankton. The bull shark is a unique species in that it can swim in both salt water ocean and fresh water rivers (and in lake Nicaragua). A few of the larger species, the Mako and White Shark, are mildly homeothermic, able to maintain their body temperature at a level above the ocean's temperature. This is possible because of the presence of the rete mirabile, a counter current exchange mechanism that reduces the loss of body heat.
In many cases, a shark will suffocate if it stops active swimming. Sharks extract their oxygen from seawater as it passes over their gills. Because of their size and the nature of their metabolism, sharks have a higher demand for oxygen than most fish and they cannot rely on ambient water current to provide an adequate supply of oxygenated water. If a shark stops swimming, the necessary water circulation for respiration becomes too low and the animal suffocates. Some sharks, like the blacktip reef shark and nurse shark, can pump water over their gills as they rest. Because sharks have no swim bladders, they sink when they stop swimming; a resting shark sinks to the sea bed.
A shark if inverted enters a natural state of paralysis. This state is called 'tonic' and the shark usually becomes dull and unresponsive for a while. Researchers use this condition for handling sharks safely. The condition is termed tonic immobility.
A popular myth is that sharks are immune to disease and cancer, this is untrue and there are disease and parasites that affect sharks, and the evidence that sharks are at least resistant to cancer and disease is mostly anecdotal and there have been few if any scientific or statistical studies that have shown sharks to have heightened immunity to disease. [1]
Shark Attacks
The fear of sharks has been fueled worldwide by a few unusual instances of unprovoked attack, such as the Jersey Shore Shark Attacks of 1916, and by sensationalized fiction and film, such as the Jaws series. While sharks cause a few dozen human deaths yearly, in the same time millions of sharks are killed by fishing.
Contrary to popular belief, only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of the about 360 described species of sharks, only 4 have been confirmed to have killed humans: the Great White, Tiger, Bull, and Oceanic Whitetipped shark. These sharks will sometimes attack and kill people, since they are big and powerful, perfectly able to eat humans, but all of the above sharks, even the Great White shark, have been filmed in open water with no cage time and time again without incident. There are many theories about why sharks attack people. Some claim that the shark is confusing a human for a seal or another animal; this is typical in the case of an attack against a surfer. Often the shark that attacks a human will make only one bite and then go away. This behaviour has 2 possible explanations, one being that humans are not seals and therefore do not taste good, lacking the necessary fat, and the other being that sharks normally attack once out of surprise and then go away and let the victim die or exhaust itself before it comes back to feed. This will protect the shark from retribution from a hurt and upset target, but humans normally have time to get out of the water and survive.
About 10-15 more species have attacked, threatened or bitten (but not killed) humans without being provoked. This group contains Mako, Hammer heads, Gray reef, Black tip reef, Lemon, Silky and Blue shark. These sharks are also big powerful sharks which can be provoked by just being in the water at the wrong place, but most of the time they are considered harmless to divers and swimmers. Most of the time if you move away or get out of the water they will not attack you.
A few other sharks do attack people every year, giving bad bites that can potentially kill humans, but they do this specifically because they have been provoked.
Speed
The general shark is known to swim at an average speed of five miles per hour, but, when feeding or attacking the average shark is known to reach speeds of twelve miles per hour. An exception to this generality is the Mako shark whose speed can range from thirty to fifty miles per hour. The Mako shark is the fastest species of shark.
Etymology
Until the late 16th century sharks were usually referred to in the English language as sea-dogs. The name "Shark" first came into use around the late 1560s to refer to the large sharks of the Caribbean Sea, and later to all sharks in general. The name may have been derived from the Mayan word for shark, xoc, pronounced "shock" or "shawk".
The collective noun for a group of sharks is a shiver.
Classification
Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It is currently thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: in particular, some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks.
There are more than 360 described species of sharks.
The first sharks appeared in the oceans 400 to 350 million years ago. Most of the species we know today are as old as the Jurassic period. There are eight orders of sharks, listed below in roughly their evolutionary relationship from more primitive to more modern species:
- Hexanchiformes: Examples from this group include the cow sharks, frilled shark and even a shark that looks on first inspection to be a marine snake.
- Squaliformes: Examples from this group include the bramble sharks, dogfish sharks and roughsharks.
- Pristiophoriformes: These are the sawsharks, with an elongated, toothed snout that they use for slashing the fishes that they subsequently eat.
- Squatiniformes: Angel sharks.
- Heterodontiformes: They are commonly referred to as the bullhead or horn sharks.
- Orectolobiformes: They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs and the largest of all fishes, the whale shark.
- Carcharhiniformes: They are commonly referred to as the groundsharks, and some of the species include the blue, tiger, bull, reef and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.
- Lamniformes: They are commonly referred to as the mackerel sharks. They include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth shark, the thresher sharks, mako shark and great white shark. They are distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction.
The Lamniformes include the extinct Megalodon (Carcharodon megalodon), which like all extinct sharks is only known from its teeth (the only bone found in these cartilaginous fishes, and therefore the only fossils produced). A reproduction of the jaw was based on some of the largest teeth (up to almost 17 cm (7 inches) in length) and suggested a fish that could grow 15 m (50 feet) long. The jaw was realized to be inaccurate, and estimates revised downwards to around 6 m (20 feet).
Reproduction
The sex of a shark can be easily determined. The males all have their pelvic fins modified into a pair of claspers. The name is somewhat misleading as they are not used to hold on to the female, but are the shark's version of the mammalian penis. (As a side note, Class Chondrichthyes has the distinction of having the animal with the largest intromittent organ — an organ used for transmitting sperm — in relation to body length. This animal is the clearnose skate (Raja eglanteria) which has claspers of 15 cm (6 in) in size on a fish that reaches 1 m (3 feet) in length.)
Mating has rarely been observed in sharks. The smaller catsharks often mate with the male curling around the female. In the less flexible species the two sharks swim parallel to each other while the male inserts the clasper into the female's oviduct. Many females in the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a male grasping her to maintain position. The bite marks can also come from the courtship of the sharks. The male may come and bite the edges of the female to show his interest. In some species, females have evolved thicker skin to withstand the sharks bite marks during mating.
Sharks have a much different reproductive strategy than most fishes. Instead of producing huge numbers of eggs and larvae (99.9% of which never reach sexual maturity in fishes that use this strategy) sharks normally produce around a dozen pups, some species up to 70-80 and some as few as 2-3. These pups are either protected by egg cases or born live. No known sharks provide parental protection for their young, but females have a hormone that is released into their blood during the pupping season that apparently keeps them from feeding.
There are three ways in which shark pups are born:
- Oviparity - Some sharks lay eggs. In most of these species, the developing embryo is protected by an egg case with the consistency of leather. Some of these cases are corkscrewed into crevices for protection. When they wash up empty on beaches, the egg cases are sometimes called mermaid's purses. Oviparous sharks include the horn shark, catsharks, Port Jackson Sharks, and the swell shark.
- Viviparity - These sharks actually maintain a placental link to the developing young, more analogous to mammals than other fishes. The young are born alive and fully functional. Hammerheads, the requiem sharks (like the bull and tiger sharks), the basking shark and the smooth dogfishes fall into this category. Dogfishes also have the longest known gestation period of any shark, 22 months. The blue shark produces the most young of sharks that have had the number of pups recorded, the maximum reported being 82.
- Ovoviviparity - Most sharks utilize this method. The young are nourished by the yolk of their egg and by fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct. The eggs hatch within the oviduct, and the young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in viviparity, the young are born alive and fully functional. Sometimes they are functional even before being born, as some species practice oophagy, where the first to hatch eat the remaining eggs in the oviduct. Sand tigers, makos, threshers, porbeagles and possibly great whites have oophagous young. The survival strategy for the species that do this is that the young are able to grow to an even larger size before being born. The whale shark is now considered to be in this category after having been classified as oviparous for a long time. Whale shark eggs found are now thought to have been aborted. Most ovoviviparous sharks generally give birth in sheltered areas, including bays, river mouths, and shallow reefs. They choose such areas mainly because of the protection from predators (mainly other sharks) and the abundance of food. A slightly modified form of ovoviviparity, oophagy is where the young hatch inside of the uterus within the first three months of gestation and consume the eggs, which the mother makes during the gestational period. Utilized by the lamnoid, great whites, crocodile sharks, makos, sand tigers, threshers, and false catsharks. Even more complex is embryophagy, where the first of the embryo’s to hatch kills its brothers and sisters before consuming the eggs provided for nourishment from its mother.
Shark senses
Sharks have two senses that many animals do not have:
- Electroreception: The Ampullae of Lorenzini are small pits in the head that detect electricity. The shark has the greatest electricity sensitivity known in all animals. This sense is used to find prey hidden in sand in bottom feeding sharks, by detecting the nerve impulses. It is this sense that sometimes confuses a shark into attacking a boat, when the metal interacts with the salt water. They can track these things from the top around a mile away, and it not only senses prey, it can sense other things as well! It is almost like having a small camera in the shark's eye, but not really. It can sense that if there is a prey, or if it is a predator, or if it is just a spectator watching it.
- Lateral line - This system is found in most fishes, including sharks. It is used to detect motion or 'sound' in the water. The shark uses this to detect other organisms moving, especially wounded fish. The shark can 'hear' frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz using this sense.
Shark fishery
Each year, 100 million sharks are killed by people in commercial and recreational fishing. In the past they were fished simply for the sport of landing a good fighting fish (mako sharks for instance). Sharkskin (covered in effect with tiny teeth - dermal denticles) was used for the purposes that sandpaper currently is, others for food (Atlantic thresher, mako and others), and some species for other products.
Sharks are a common seafood in many places around the world, including Japan and Australia. In the Australian State of Victoria Shark is the most commonly used fish in fish and chips, in which fillets are battered and deep fried or crumbed and grilled and served alongside chips. When served in fish and chip shops, it is called Flake.
Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup, in which many sharks are hunted for their fins, which are cut off with a hot metal blade before the live animal is tossed back into the water. There have been cases where hundreds of de-finned animals were swept up on local beaches without any way to convey themselves back into the sea. Conservationists have campaigned for changes in the law to make finning illegal in the U.S.
Sharks generally reach sexual maturity slowly and produce very few offspring in comparison to other fishes that are harvested. This has caused concern among biologists regarding the increase in effort applied to catching sharks over time, and many species are considered to be threatened.
Organizations like the Shark Trust are trying to limit shark fishing.
Sharks in mythology
Sharks figure prominently in the Hawaiian mythology. There are stories of shark men who have shark jaws on their back. They could change form between shark and human at any time desired, and for any length. A common theme in the stories was that the shark men would warn beach goers that sharks were in the waters. The beach goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and go swimming, subsequently being eaten by the same shark man who warned them not to enter the water.
Hawaiian mythology also contained many shark gods. They believed that sharks were guardians of the sea, and called them Aumakua. A listing of them follows:
- Kamohoali'i - The most well known and revered of the shark gods, he was the older and favored brother of Pele, and helped and journeyed with her to Hawaii. He was able to take on all human and fish forms. A summit cliff on the crater of Kilauea is considered to be one of his most sacred spots. At one point he had a he'iau (temple or shrine) dedicated to him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Moloka'i.
- Ka'ahupahau - This goddess was born human, with her defining characteristic being her red hair. She was later transformed into shark form and was believed to protect the people who lived on O'ahu from sharks. She was also believed to live near Pearl Harbor.
- Kaholia Kane - This was the shark god of the ali'i Kalaniopu'u and he was believed to live in a cave at Puhi, Kaua'i.
- Kane'apua - Most commonly, he was the brother of Pele and Kamohoali'i. He was a trickster god who performed many heroic feats, including the calming of two legendary colliding hills that destroyed canoes trying to pass between.
- Kawelomahamahai'a - Another human, he was transformed into a shark.
- Keali'ikau 'o Ka'u - He was the cousin of Pele and son of Kua. He was called the protector of the Ka'u people. He had an affair with a human girl, who gave birth to a helpful green shark.
- Kua - This was the main shark god of the people of Ka'u, and believed to be their ancestor.
- Kuhaimoana - He was the brother of Pele and lived in the Ka'ula islet. He was said to be 30 fathoms (55 m) long and was the husband of Ka'ahupahau.
- Kauhuhu - He was a fierce king shark that lived in a cave in Kipahulu on the island of Maui. He sometimes moved to another cave on the windward side of island of Moloka'i.
- Kane-i-kokala - A kind shark god that saved shipwrecked people by taking them to shore. The people who worshipped him feared to eat, touch or cross the smoke of the kokala, his sacred fish. The Basking shark is a shark that will never eat a human. The black tip diving shark will can dive up to 250 feet down.
In other Pacific Ocean cultures, Dakuwanga was a shark god who was the eater of lost souls.
In ancient Greece, shark flesh was forbidden to be eaten at women's festivals.
Related articles
- List of shark articles in Wikipedia
- Shark Trust
- The Headington Shark
- The movie Jaws (1975)
- Pahu
- Shark Tale
References
- Gilbertson, Lance (1999). Zoology Laboratory Manual. New York, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
- Castro, Jose. The Sharks of North American Waters. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1983.
- Stevens, John D. Sharks. New York: NY Facts on File Publications, 1987.
External links
- Greenland Shark and Elasmobranch Education and Research Group
- The International Shark Attack File
- Shark Trust Organization
- ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
- Photographs of sharks
- Sharks Photo gallery
- Sharkology
- Shark cartoons
