Silesia

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Image:HistoricSilesiamap2.PNG Silesia (-Latin, Polish" Śląsk, German" Schlesien, Czech" Slezsko) is a historical region in central Europe. Most of it is now within the borders of Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Silesia is located along the upper and middle Oder River (Odra) and along the Sudetes mountain range. In the local Silesian language or dialect, the region is called Ślonsk or Ślunsk. The largest city of Silesia is Wrocław.

The Polish portion of Silesia, which forms the larger bulk of the region, is now divided into the following voivodships (provinces):

The Opole and Silesian Voivodships are called Upper Silesia. The small portion in the Czech Republic is joined with the northern part of Moravia and forms the Moravian-Silesian Region of that country, while the remainder forms a small part of the Olomouc Region. The German area of Silesia consists of the city of Görlitz and the Lower Silesian Upper Lusatia district in Saxony.

In the Middle Ages, Silesia was a Piast province, which became a possession of the Bohemian crown under the Holy Roman Empire and passed with that crown to the Austrian Habsburgs in 1526. In 1742, most of Silesia was seized by Frederick the Great of Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession. This part of Silesia constituted the Prussian provinces of Upper and Lower Silesia until 1945, when most of Silesia became part of Poland. The portion of Silesia that was retained by Austria is now within the borders of the Czech Republic.

Contents

Name of the region

One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, which most likely were a Vandalic people, who supposedly lived south of the Baltic Sea along the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula rivers in the 2nd century. When the Silingi moved from the area during the Migration Period, they left remnants of their society behind.

The most evident remnants are in the names of places, which were adopted (in Slavic form) by the new inhabitants, who were in fact Slavic (Polish Śląsk, Old Polish Śląžsk [-o], Old Slavic *Sьlьąžьskъ [<*Sьlьągьskъ], from Old Vandalic *Siling-isk [land]). These people became associated with the place, and were henceforth known as Silesians (using a Latinized form of the name, Pol. Ślężanie), even though they had little in common with the original Silingi. Archeological finds from the 7th and 8th centuries also uncovered former largely populated areas, protected by a dense system of fortifications from the West and South. The lack of such systems from the North or East supports the notion that Silesia was part of a larger state populated by early Slavic tribes.

History

Early people

Silesia was inhabited by various people that belonged to changing archeological cultures in the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages.

According to Tacitus, in the 1st century Silesia was inhabited by a multi-ethnic league dominated by the Lugii/Lygii. The Silingi were also part of this federation, and most likely a Vandalic people that lived south of the Baltic Sea in the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula river area.

Middle Ages

Early documents mention a couple of mostly Slavic tribes most probably living in Silesia. The Bavarian Geographer (ca. 845) specifies the following peoples: the Slenzanie, Dzhadoshanie, Opolanie, Lupiglaa, and Golenshitse. A document of a bishopric from Prague (1086) also mentions the Zlasane, Trebovyane, Poborane, and Dedositze.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the territory later called Silesia was subject to Moravian, and then Bohemian rulers of the neighbouring area covered by today's Czech Republic to the south. About 990, Silesia was incorporated into Poland by Mieszko I (although some historians move this date to 999 and the rule of Boleslaus I, duke of the Polanie and later king of Poland). During Poland's fragmentation (1138–1320) into duchies ruled by different branches of the Piast dynasty, Silesia was ruled by descendants of the former royal family.

In 1146, senior duke Wladislaus II the Exile acknowledged the overlordship of the Holy Roman Empire over Poland, but was driven into exile. Seventeen years later, in 1163, his two sons took possession of Silesia with imperial backing, dividing the land between them as dukes of Lower and Upper Silesia. Thus they created two main Piast lines in Silesia (wrocławska of Wrocław) and opolsko-raciborska (of Opole and Racibórz). The policy of subdivision continued under their successors, with Silesia being divided into 16 principalities by the 1390s.

In 1241, the region experienced the Mongol invasion of Europe. After raiding Lesser Poland, they entered Silesia and caused widespread panic and mass migrations. The Mongols looted much of the region but abandoned their siege of the castle of Wrocław, supposedly after being fended off by Blessed Cheslav's "miraculous fireball." The Mongols defeated the combined Polish and German forces at the Battle of Legnica, which took place at the Legnickie Pole near modern Legnica. Upon the death of Ögedei Khan, the Mongols chose not to press forward further into Europe, but rather returned east.

The ruling Silesian lords decided to rebuild their cities according to the latest administrative ideas. They founded or relocated some 160 cities and 1,500 towns and imposed a codified German law (Magdeburg law) in place of the older, customary Polish laws. They also made up for the recent population loss by inviting foreigners, mostly Germans from the Holy Roman Empire. Since end of 13th century/beginning of 14th century Silesian dukes invited many German settlers to improve their dukedoms. Germans settled mostly in cities, as did Jews and some Czechs. In country side people with Polish origins dominated. With this, and with the ruling classes adopting German culture, the foundation for the ethnic tensions found later in Silesia were laid.

In the second half of the 13th century, various knightly orders also settled in Silesia - the Knights of the Red Star were the first, soon followed by the Hospitaller and the Teutonic Knights.

Many Piast dukes tried to reunite Silesia with Poland and even reunite Poland itself during the time of divisions. First significant attempts were performed by Silesian duke Henryk IV Probus, however he died in 1290 before obtaining his goal. Next was duke of Greater Poland, Przemysł II of Poland who united two of original provinces and crowned in 1295. However was murdered by Brandenburg assassins in 1296. According to his will Greater Poland was supposed to be inherited by duke Henryk Głogowski (Silesian dukedom of Głogów), who also had aspirations to unite Poland, and even claimed title duke of Poland. However nobles of Greater Poland generally supported another candidate from Kuyavian (kujawska) line of Piasts, duke Władysław Łokietek (Wladislaus I the Short). Łokietek eventually won struggle because of broader support base. In the meantime king of Bohemia Waclaw II decided to extend his rule and crowned himself as Polish king in 1302. Next half of century were full of wars between Łokietek (later his son Casimir III the Great) reuniting country and coalition of Bohemia, Brandenburg and Teutonic Knights trying to divide Poland. During this time most of Silesian dukes, despite their ties with Poland but ruling small realms and unable to unite has fallen under Czech dominance or into Czech rule.

In 1335, Duke Henry VI of Wrocław and the Upper Silesian dukes recognized the overlordship of the king of Bohemia, John of Luxemburg. Finally in 1348 Polish king Kazimierz was forced to accept Czech dominance over most of Silesia. The last independent Piast duchies in Silesia ceased to exist in 1368, although the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty went extinct only in 1675, as Silesian lines of Piasts became slowly extinct between 14th and 16th century: in 1335 wrocławska (of Wrocław), in 1368 świdnicka (of Świdnica), in 1476 oleśnicka (Oleśnica), in 1476 głogowska (of Głogów), in 1504 żagańska (of Żagań), in 1532 opolska (of Opole), 1625 cieszyńska (of Cieszyn) and in 1675 brzesko-legnicka (of Brzeg and Legnica).

From that time Silesia indirectly became a part of the Holy Roman Empire, as Bohemia was itself its autonomous part. Silesia remained part of the lands of the Bohemian crown until 1740, under kings from Czech, Polish, and German dynasties. Under the emperor and king of Bohemia Charles IV, Silesia and especially Wrocław gained greatly in importance - many great buildings and large Gothic churches were built.

Between 1425 and 1435, devastation was caused by the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. The Hussites turned against the German population, and some regions, especially Upper Silesia, became Slavic-speaking again. Despite the widespread nature of the conflagration, Silesia remained largely Catholic.

Early Modern Period

Silesia continued to have very strong economical ties with Poland during the Renaissance period and beyond.

The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century took an early hold in Silesia, and most of the inhabitants became Lutheran. In times of reformation dukes and most of inhabitants converted to lutheranism. Many refomation priests contributed in developing Polish culture and language in Silesia.

In 1526, King Ferdinand I made the elected crown of Bohemia an inherited possession of the Habsburg dynasty. In 1537 the Piast duke Frederick II of Brzeg(Brieg) concluded a treaty with Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, whereby the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg would inherit the duchy upon the extinction of the Piasts, but the treaty was rejected by Ferdinand.

Since the beginning of 17th century religious conflicts and war between the supporters of reformation and counter-reformation, many Czech and Silesia protestants were seeking refuge in the tolerant Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Many thousands of then settled in Greater Poland, under protection of powerful protestant magnates (e.g. Rafał Leszczyński). Very strong group of Czech Brethren settled in Leszno (e.g. Comenius). Protestant Silesians often circumvened restrictive laws by building their churches on Polish side of border.

The second "Defenestration of Prague" in 1618 sparked the Thirty Years' War, caused by attempts of King Ferdinand II to restore Catholicism and stamp out Protestantism.

Czech Protestants were supported by German ones and by Hungarian nobles as well. Bethlen Gabor forces lied siege to Vienna and threatened to extend Transylvanian rule (and thus Ottoman Empire) to Bohemia and Silesia. Polish nobles (at least verbally) supported Czechs because struggle of Czech and Hungarian nobles was viewed as a struggle of 'free' nobility against absolutists monarch, and thus resonated with the Polish szlachta ideal of Golden Liberty. Nobles would not help to fight protestants and Sejm (Polish parliament) has even forbidden king Zygmunt III Waza to send Polish assistance to his allies, the Catholic Habsburgs. Devoutly Catholic Zygmunt, enemy of the protestants sympathized with Habsburgs and there was matter that defensive treaty but he had to decline Emperor Matthias request (to be allowed to hire Commonwealth troops) because Commonwealth was tired of wars with Sweden and wars with Muscovy and its relations with Ottoman Empire were worsening. Finally, Zygmunt III decided to help Habsburgs only by sending privately hired mercenary group called Lisowczycy (also because they were unemployed after end of wars with Muscovy and were plundering Lithuania like a plague) in end of 1619, hoping to get back some parts of Silesia in exchange. Although Lisowczycys's support would prove decisive during the Battle of White Mountain, Polish vasas never received anything except a vague set of promises and several brides to keep them favourably inclined to the Habsburg dynasty.

During talks with prince Władysław (future king of Poland, Władysław IV Waza), on his voyage to Silesia in mid of 1619, Emperor promised to agree for temporary occupation of part of Silesia by Polish forces, which Wazas hoped would later allow to incorporate those areas into Poland. Some of the Silesian dukes (especially remaining ones of the Piast dynasty) and bishop of Wrocław, archduke Karol Habsburg wanted to move under Commonwealth protection as well (hoping to avoid participation in the Thirty Years' War which was ravaging lands of the Holy Roman Empire). As Karol bishopric was nominally subordinated to Polish archbishopric of Gniezno, he asked the Polish archbishop of Gniezno for mediation in talks with Zygmunt III about protection and subordination of his bishopric. In May 1619, prince Władysław, invited by his uncle archduke bishop Karol, left Warszawa and started his voyage to Silesia (to Nysa?). In July 1619 Czech protestants rebelled againsst Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor and offered Bohemian crown to Frederick of Paltinate. On 27th of September, probably hearing news, Władysław and bishop Karol left Silesia in hurry and on 7th of October arrived in Warsaw. In December 1619, young Władysław's brother (born in 1613), prince Karol Ferdynand was chosen by bishop Karol for an auxiliary bishop of Wrocław, which was confirmed by Polish episcopate. Bishopric of Wrocław returned under rule of archbishopric of Gniezno in 1620 (before was practically almost independent), but until 1632 de-facto rule was hold in Warszaw by king Zygmunt III and not bishop nor archbishop. Prince Karol Ferdynand was appointed bishop of Wrocław in 1625.

However as Habsburg situation improved, Emperor Ferdinand II did not agree for any concessions in Silesia nor help in war against Ottoman Empire which now threatened the Ottoman Empire, in a large part not only provoked by Polish support to Habsburgs, but actually supported by Habsburg secret agents in the Ottoman Emppire.

Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor proposal of marriage between Wladislaw and archduchess Cecylia Renata (sister of future Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor) arrived in Warsaw somewhere during spring 1636. King's trusted, father Walerian (kapucyn religious order ) arrived in Regensburg (Polish: Ratyzbona) on 26th of October 1636 with consent and performed negotiations. Archduchess dowry was agreed for 100000 złoty (currency unit), Emperor promised to pay dowries of Zygmunt III both wives: Anna and Konstancja. Additionally son of Wladislaw and Cecylia Renata was to obtain duchy of Opole and Raciborz in Silesia (księstwo opolsko-raciborskie). However before everything was confirmed and signed Ferdinand II died and Ferdinand III backed from giving Silesian duchy to son of Wladislaaw. Instead, dowry was written/protected by Bohemian estates of Trzeboń (Trebon). The marriage took place in 1637.

In 1638 Władysław proposed that still not paid dowries of his mother and second wife of Zygmunt III would be protected by one of Silesian duches (preferably opolsko-raciborskie). In 1642 proposed to give Habsburgs his rights to Swedish throne in exchange for giving him Silesia in deposit. Ludovico Fantoni, sent to Vienna in summer 1644 proposed to exchange Wladysław's incomes from Bohemian estates in Treben for duches opolsko-raciborskie and cieszyńskie (of Cieszyn). At the beginning of 1645, tired by constant stalling of Vienna's court, Władysław said to Emperor's envoy sent to Warszawa, Maximilian Dietrichstein, that Poland will cooperate with Sweden – it was an open threat (that he could take Silesia with Swedes help and against Emperor) pronounced by fact that on 6th of March 1645 Swedish general Lennart Torstensson defeated Emperor's, Bavarian and Saxon forces in battle of Jankov and started march against Vienna. Now Emperor was again ready for discussion and sent Johannes Putz von Adlertum to Warsaw in April 1645 giving him wide prerogatives in transferring rights of duchy opolsko-raciborskie to son of Władysław and Cecylia Renata, Zygmunt Kazimierz as a hereditary fief. Negotiations eventually ended with Habsburgs success and Polish failure. Duchy was given not as a hereditary fief but 50 years long deposit and owner was required to swear allegiance to king of Bohemia (thus it could not be Polish king), but as an exempt Władysław would rule duchy until his son was an adult. Additionally Władysław promised to lend Emperor 1100000 złoty (minus still not paid three dowries).

After the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, the Habsburgs greatly encouraged Catholicism, and succeeded in reconverting about 60 % of the population of Silesia. By 1675, the last Silesian Piast rulers had died out.

In 1740, the seizure of Silesia by King Frederick II of Prussia (the Great), was welcomed by the Silesians, not only the Protestant population. Frederick based his claims on the Treaty of Brieg, began the War of the Austrian Succession which ended in 1748. At the end of this war, the Kingdom of Prussia had conquered almost all of Silesia (some parts of Silesia in the extreme southeast remained possessions of Austria), and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) only confirmed this result – Silesia became one of the most loyal a provinces of Prussia. In 1815, the area around Görlitz was incorporated as a part of the province in an administrative reform.

Silesia in Germany

Silesia became part of the German Empire when Germany was unified in 1871. There was considerable industrialization in Upper Silesia, and many people moved there at that time. The majority of the population of Lower Silesia was German-speaking and Lutheran, including the capital Wrocław, then known as Breslau. There were areas such as the District of Opole and parts of Upper Silesia, however, where a larger portion or even majority of the population was Polish-speaking and Roman Catholic. In Silesia as a whole, Poles comprised about 30% of the population. The Kulturkampf set Catholics in opposition to the government and sparked a Polish revival in the province.

After the defeat of the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in World War I the Austrian parts of Silesia were divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia. In the Treaty of Versailles, it was decided that the population of the German Upper Silesia should hold a plebiscite in order to determine the future of the province, with the exception of a 333 km2 area around Hlučín, which was granted to Czechoslovakia in 1920 despite having a German majority. The plebiscite between Germany and Poland, organised by the League of Nations, was held in 1921 - the outcome was 706,000 votes for Germany and 479,000 for Poland. In the southeastern areas that were the backbone of the economy and industry, there was a strong majority for Poland.

Between the wars

After the referendum, there were three Silesian Insurrections, as a result of which the League of Nations decided that the province should be split again and that the areas that voted for Poland should become an autonomous area within Poland, organised as the Silesian Voivodship (Wojewodztwo Śląskie). One of the central political figures that drive for these changes was Wojciech Korfanty.

The Silesian Uprisings 1919-1921:

Silesia was then reorganised within the two Prussian provinces of Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia. In October of 1938, Cieszyn Silesia (the disputed area West of the Olza river, also called Zaolzie - 906km² with 258,000 inhabitants), was retaken by Poland from Czechoslovakia, in accord with the Munich Agreement.

Germany again took possession of these parts of Silesia in 1939, when an attack on Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War. Silesian Poles were massively killed or deported, and new German settlers were brought to their homes after these atrocities.

Silesia after WWII

In 1945, all of Silesia was occupied by the Soviet Red Army. By then a large portion of the German population had fled Silesia, but many returned after German capitulation. Under the terms of the agreements at the Yalta Conference of 1944 and the Potsdam Agreement of 1945, most of Silesia east of the rivers Oder (Odra) and Neisse (Nysa) were transferred to Poland. Most of the remaining Silesian Germans, who before World War II amounted to about 4 million, were forcibly expelled. A small part of Silesia, surrounding the city of Görlitz, remained part of the German Democratic Republic, and is now part of the Federal State of Saxony in the Federal Republic of Germany.

The industry of Silesia was rebuilt after the war, and the region was populated by Poles (mostly by Poles who were themselves expelled from lands annexed by the Soviet Union). Today, more than 20 % of the entire population of Poland lives in Silesia.

Natural resources

Silesia is a resource-rich and populous region. Coal and iron are both abundant, and a substantial manufacturing industry is present. In post-communist times, however, the outdated nature of many of the facilites led to environmental problems. The region also has a thriving agricultural sector, which produces mainly grains, potatoes, and sugar beets.

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Demographics

Modern Silesia is inhabited mostly by Poles and Silesians, but also by minorities of Germans, Czechs, and Moravians. The last Polish census of 2002 showed that the Silesians are the largest ethnic minority in Poland, Germans being the second — both groups are located mostly in Silesia. The Czech part of Silesia is inhabited by Czechs, Moravians, and Poles.

Prior to the Second World War, Silesia was inhabited by Germans, Poles, and Czechs. The 1905, a census showed that 75% of the population was German and 25% Polish. During and after World War II, most German-Silesians fled Silesia, were evacuated, expelled, or emigrated (see German exodus from Eastern Europe); a large group of Silesians today live in Germany. In order to smooth their integration into the German society, they were organized into officially recognized organisations, like the Landsmannschaft Schlesien, financed from the federal budget. One of its most notable but controversial spokesmen was the CDU politician Herbert Hupka. The prevailing public opinion in Germany is that these organisations will achieve reconciliation with the Polish Silesians, which is gradually happening.

Major cities in Silesia

See also

External links

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