Sufism
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Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a school of esoteric philosophy in Islam, which is based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as a definite goal to attain. In modern language it might also be referred to as Islamic spirituality or Islamic mysticism. Instead of focusing on the legal aspects of Islam (fiqh), Sufism focuses on the internal aspects of Islam, such as perfecting the aspect of sincerity of faith and fighting one's ego.
Sufi practitioners are organized into a diverse range of brotherhoods and sisterhoods, with a wide diversity of thought. Sufi orders ("tariqas") can be Shi'a, Sunni, both or neither.
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History of Sufism
The history of Sufism can be divided into following principal periods
Origins
In the early days of Islam, the term Sufism (Tasawwuf) did not exist as a distinct discipline. Rather it was inseparably present in the spirituality of Islam, that was practiced in the daily lives of the companions through their spiritual initiation at the hand of the Prophet. The Ahl as suffa ( People of the Bench ) were the people that can historically be regarded as the first Sufis as they regularly held gatherings of invocation and received the blessing of God, as mentioned in the following verse of Quran :
- Restrain yourself together with those who pray to their Lord morning and evening seeking His Face. Do not turn your eyes away from them in the quest for the good things of this life; nor obey any whose heart we have made heedless of Our remembrance who follows his own lust and gives loose reign to his desires.’ ( Al-Khahf , verse 28).
The People of the Bench* were companions of the Prophet Muhammad, many of whom were of foreign origin (e.g. Bilal from Ethiopia, Salman from Persia and Suhaib from Rome ) . Ali is regarded as the starting point of the principal chains of transmission of the spiritual heritage of the Messenger of GOD. Some other chains include other companians as the starting point of the chain of transmission .
It is essential to note that “Sufism” as a movement, in its early stages of development, meant nothing but the “interiorization of Islam” as the German scholar Annemarie Schimmel proposes, emphasizing Qur’an, Sunnah and the implementation of Shari`ah. The French Orientalist Louis Massignon states: “It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.” Holding tight to the Qur’an and Sunnah was truly, the principle definition of Sufism or “tassawuf”.
The great Masters of Sufism
At a time when Iraq was the centre of Muslim Caliphate , and an intellectual crucible and crossroads of various influences,there were mystical circles in cities such as Basra and Baghdad , that Sufism appears in the historical record (as a discipline and school bearing this name). The Sufis dispersed throughout the whole of the Middle East particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterised by the practice of an apprentice (murid) placing themselves under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir) in the same way as was exemplified in the original Prophetic model. Schools started to form around some famous masters such as Junayd in Baghdad and Al-Tustari in Basra. These were developed in a very open and public way and were then written up as treatises concerning such topics as; mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of GOD and especially the approach towards Allah through a series of progressive stages or stations (maqam) and states (hal). These schools were formed by reformers in reaction to the disappearance of values and manners in the society of the time, which was marked by a material prosperity that was eroding the spiritual life.The Qur'anic verses which were the favourites of the Sufis included:
:"We [God] are closer to him [man] than his jugular vein."
- "Say, surely we belong to God and to Him do we return."
- "He is the First and the Last and the Manifest and the Hidden."
- "God is the light of the heavens and the earth."
Hasan Ul-Basri is regarded as the first mystic in Islam. Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya was renowned for her love and passion for GOD. Junayd was as the first theorist of Sufism known for his teachings on ‘fanaa and baqaa’, the state whereby the annihilation of the self occurs in the divine presence is accompanied by a great clarity towards the world of phenomena. In addition to these famous names Soulami (325-416AH) quotes more than one hundred Shaykhs (spiritual masters) in his book ‘Tabaqat’. The most famous of them are; Foudail Bin Ayad, Dhu Nun Al Misri, Ibrahim Bin Adham, Sari Saqti, Al Harith Al Muhassibi, Abu Yazid Al Bustami, Marouf Khalkhi and Ibrahim Al Khawass . The revolution of religious thought engendered through the Sufism of this time did not go without causing some reactions. Certain attitudes were not considered to be very orthodox. The crisis culminated in the famous case of Al Hallaj who had made inappropriate remarks in public whilst in a state of spiritual intoxication (sukr).
Formalisation of Philosophies of Sufism
Sufism was now recognized and understood by virtue of the high spiritual values that it propagates and because of the intellectual efforts of the great thinkers of this time. These scholars used all due discretion when they addressed matters of high spirituality. They respected the social and cultural hierarchies of their time and spoke to everyone according to their level of understanding.
This time was marked primarily by a proliferation in the number of treaties on Sufism and in particular by the personality of Al Ghazali , considered by some as the greatest philosopher of Sufism. His works influenced influential Western thinkers such as Kant. .His famous treatises, called the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences," the "Alchemy of Happiness," and other works; set off to convince the Islamic world that Sufism and its teachings originated from the Qur'an and were compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It was AL-GAZALLI who bridged the gap between traditional and mystical Islam. It was around 1000 AD that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses, and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.Another very important Sufi, of that period was Ibn Arabi . Ibn Arabi was a contemporary of the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes). The relations and relationship between this exceptional trio ( Ghazali, Ibn Rushd and Ibn Arabi ) is worthy of study. Ibn Arabi met with Ibn Rushd and attended his burial. During the first meeting of these two famous men Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was an elderly man renowned for his books of learning and Ibn Arabi was a young man known as a ‘wali’ (saint). Contrary to the traditional view that a man must pass through three stages (sharia, Tariqa and Haqiqah) to reach realization, Ibn Arabi received the ‘fath’ (literally ‘the opening’ or direct Gnostic knowledge) when he was barely ten years old. It was only thereafter that he followed the Tariqa (the spiritual way) and acquired book knowledge. Ibn Rushd is to some extent the ‘father’ of modernistic thought and Ghazali and Ibn Arabi the ‘fathers’ of post-modernist thought.
The Malamatiyya (the blameworthy) order can be considered a proto-Sufi order that arose in the 9th century CE before the crystallization of the Sufi orders .
Propagation of Sufism
It was between 1200 - 1500 AD that Sufis and Sufism enjoyed a period of intense Sufic activity in various part of the Islamic world. Hence this period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students and novices but also places for "spiritual retreat" for practising Sufis and other mystics.This period is characterized by the propagation of Sufism starting from its centre in Baghdad in Iraq from which it spread towards Persia , India , North Africa , & Muslim Spain. This period is characterized by tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (Sharia, Fiqh etc) , & starting of the Sufi brotherhoods (Turuq). This deals with the relationship between the scholars of the Sharia and the Sufis.
One of the first orders to originate in this period was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern Kazakhstan . The Kubrawiya Sufi Order originating in Central Asia , was named after Najmeddin Kubra known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , since a number of his disciples became great shaykhs themselves . The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani , the founder of Qadiriyyah order in Iraq.Others included Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi , founder of Mevlevi order in Turkey, Shihabuddin Yahya as-Suhrawardi in Asia minor, and Moinuddin Chishti in India. Although each order had a regional flavour, their basic teachings and practices remained fundamentally the same.
After having gained influence over the whole of the central Islamic world, the brotherhoods (turuq) became the focus for the Islam of the new territories that came under Muslim domination or influence. This included the Indo-Malay territories in the East and West Africa and Andalusia in the West. The brotherhoods made a significant contribution throughout the centuries in presenting the true face of Islam – the Islam of beauty and love.
Sufism not only represented a practical and specific stream of religious thought but also played an important cultural role in Islam.It also played an important role in the development of literature, in Persian, Turkish and Urdu languages .Sufism also appears in other art forms such as dance and music ( like Qawali ) and the Indo-Persian miniatures which decorate the philosopher’s stones in verse and prose. It became an integral and fundamental element of religious thought and Islamic sensitivities and became fully absorbed and moulded into the civilization of the time .
Modern Sufism
This period includes the effects of modern thoughts on Sufism , and the advent of sufism to the West. Important Sufis of this period includes names like Inayat ali khan, Idries Shah , Yunus Emre & Nuh Ha Mim Keller , who have tried to explain Sufi concepts in the light of modern culture .
Basic beliefs
The central concept in Sufism is love. Dervishes—the name given to initiates of sufi orders—believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. They believe that God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God looks at himself within the dynamics of nature. This is substantiated using the famous Hadith Qudsi (extra-Quranic utterance of God): "I was a hidden treasure, and I wanted to be known, so I created Creation." Since they believe that everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly, and to open arms to what they believe as even the most evil one.
The fundamental aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all false notions of duality (and therefore of the Self also), and realize the Unity of / in / with God.
Sufis teach in personal groups, believing that the intervention of the master is necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of parables and metaphors, in such a way that the meaning is only reachable through a process of seeking for the utmost truth and knowledge of oneself.
Although philosophies vary between different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such is often compared to Zen Buddhism, Gnosticism, and many other religions.
The following metaphor, credited to an unknown Sufi scholar, helps describe this line of thought. There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God.
A large part of Muslim literature comes from the Sufis, who created great books of poetry (which include for example the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the Conference of the Birds and the Masnavi), all of which contain profound, and hardly graspable, teachings of the Sufis.
Etymology
The root word of Sufi is the Arabic word Saaf, meaning pure, clean or blank. Based on this it has been asserted by some that Sufis got their name because they practice the purification of heart.
Another popular view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, implying a cloak, refers to the simple cloaks the original Sufis wore. Some scholars (see Tor Andrae's Garden of Myrtles) have suggested that this derivation gives credence to early Sufism's link with Syriac Christian monastic orders. Woolen clothes were common in these monastic orders, but uncommon amongst normal Muslims of the time.
The Greek terms Sophos/Sophia, literally implying wisdom or enlightenment, have also sometimes been asserted as the source of the word Sufi. Although this etymology has largely been discredited, it was popular amongst orientalists in the early 20th Century.
Most Sufis agree with the first definition, while most scholars tend to adhere to the second. The two were combined by the acclaimed sufi Junayd al-Baghdadi (d. 920 CE) in the famous saying, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity..."
Idries Shah writes in 'The Way of the Sufi' about the word sufi being said to have no etymology.
Sufi Concepts
Lataif-e-sitta (The six Subtleties)
Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish Lataif-e-Sitta (The six subtleties), Nafs, Qalb, Sirr, Ruh, Khafi & Akhfa. These lataif (sing : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, sometimes, faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception. In a rough assessment, they might appear to correlate with glands, organs, Chinese traditional or vedic chakras.
In general, sufic development involves the awakening in a certain order these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in every person. Each center is associated with a particular color and general area of the body, as well as oft times with a particular prophet, and varies from Order to Order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. The activation of all these "centers" is part of the inner methodology of the sufi way or "Work". After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion" or becomes a Complete Man.
These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God’s love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh), fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God’s attributes (Dhikr), & completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata known as the kabbalah or to some the Indian chakra system.
It is important to mention that “ Great Soul ”, “ Human Soul “ & “ Animal Soul “ are actually “levels of functioning” of the same soul and not three different souls. These three parts of soul are like three rings of light infused in one another and are collectively called the soul, the indivisible entity, Lord’s edict of simply the man. Man gets acquainted with them one by one by Muraqaba ( Sufi Meditation), Dhikr ( Remembrance of God) & purification of one’s psyche/life from negative thinking patterns (fear, depression), negative emotions (hate, contempt, anger, lust) and negative practices (hurting others psychologically or physically). Loving God & loving/helping every human being irrespective of his race, religion or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
Sufi cosmology
Although there is no consensus with regard to Sufi cosmology, one can disentangle various threads that led to the crystallization of more or less coherent cosmological doctrines. Reading various authoritative texts, one can see that practitioners of Sufism were not much bothered with inconsistencies and contradictions that have arisen due to juxtaposition and superposition of at least three different cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by Suhrawardi Maqtul, Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers like Ibn Sina/Avicenna and Sufis like Ibn al-Arabi and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. All these doctrines (and each one of them claiming to be impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed, frequently with confusing results- a situation one encounters in other esoteric doctrines, from Hebrew Kabbalah and Christian Gnosticism to Vajrayana Buddhism and Trika Shaivism. The following cosmological plan is usually found in various Sufi texts:
See also: Plane (cosmology) Esoteric cosmology.
Sufi practices
Muraqaba
- Main article: Muraqaba
Muraqaba is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of meditation. The Arabic word literally means observe, guard or control, in this context referring to controlling and guarding one's thoughts and desires. In some Sufi orders muraqaba may involve concentrating one's mind on the names of God, or on a verse of the Quran, or on certain Arabic letters that have special significance. Muraqaba in other orders may involve the Sufi aspirant focusing on his or her murshid, while others, such as the Azeemia order, imagine certain colors to achieve different spiritual states.
Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
The Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies. Each order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for group dhikr, the liturgy of which may include recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance. (Touma 1996, p.162). Dhikr in a group is most often done on Thursday and/or Sunday nights as part of the institutional practice of the orders.
Qawwali
Qawwali is the devotional music of the Sufis.
Sama
Sama or Sama' (Arabic "listening") refers to Sufi worship practices involving music and dance (see Sufi whirling). In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual. See Qawwali#Origins and Origin and History of the Qawwali, Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, Islamabad, 1988.
Orders of Sufism
- Main article: Tariqa
Traditional orders
The traditional Sufi orders all emphasize the role of Sufism within Islam. Therefore the Sharia (tradional Islamic law) and the Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders are the Qadiri, Naqshbandi, Mevlevi and the Chishti. For a longer list of Sufi orders see: Category:Sufi orders
PHILTAR (Philosophy of Theology and Religion at the Division of Religion and Philosophy of St Martin's College) has a very useful Graphical illustration of the Sufi schools.
Non-Traditional Sufi Groups
There also exist some Sufi groups that do not exist within the framework of Islam, or that pay little attention (even in name) to the Quran or the traditional Sharia and Sunna. These can be generally categorized as non-traditional Sufi groups. In the Indian Subcontinent there exist several syncretic Sufi groups that have blurred the boundary between Islam and Hinduism (see for example Sai Baba of Shirdi or Kabir Das). In west Africa, the Mourides of Senegal don't observe the Islamic prayer or other traditional Islamic rituals, as they are instead encourage to do work in the service of their murshid (spiritual guide).
The Sidis of Gujarat migrated from East Africa to India in the twelfth century.
In recent decades there has also been a growth of such non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America[1], the Golden Sufi Center[2], the Sufi Foundation of America[3], Sufism Reoriented. For more about non-tradtional Western Sufism read "Sufism, the West, and Modernity" on the website of Dr Alan Godlas.
Universal Sufism
- Main article: Universal Sufism
Sufism is usually seen in relation to Islam. There is a major line of Non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being in fact a universal, Perennial Philosophy and, therefore, independent of the Qur'an and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. This view of Sufism has been popular in the West but is opposed by Sufis who practice it within the framework of Islam. Inayat Khan founded Universal Sufism), and Idries Shah advocated similar concepts.
There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary Muslim thought from within. According to this view, Sufism represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to God and His creation.
Traditional Islamic schools of thought and Sufism
The relationship between traditional Islamic Schools and Sufism is complicated by some important factors.
Sufism as a separate movement within Islam makes its appearance quite late, so we cannot know for sure how the very earliest of the scholars would have treated it.
The founders and earlier scholars of the schools have displayed mixed opinions towards Sufism. Thus, although most of them recognized Sufism, illustrated for example by Imam Hambal's frequent visits to the Sufi master Bishr al Hafi, there are others who considered Sufism to be heretical, to the extent of leading to disbelief.
The term Sufism has had such a wide range of connotations that a comparison to traditional Islam is difficult outside of a strictly defined context.
Muslims hold Tasawwuf to be the science of the heart (as distinct from Fiqh which are the matters of practice and Aqidah which are matters of the intellect).
Some Muslim groups (such at the Salafis ) hold Sufism to be a form of reprehensible innovation (what is called Bid'ah in Islam).
See also
- List of Sufism related topics
- List of famous Sufis
- Qawwali Sufi devotional music from the Subcontinent
- Sufi Taqaruf In East Asia
- Spiritual healing
- Theosophy
- Sufi Texts
External links
- International Association of Sufism
- What is Tasawwuf? Sufism and Islamic Shariah
- The place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam
- Sufisim vs Sufi Claimers
- Graphical illustration of the Sufi schools
- Tasawwuf -- Sufism Sufism & Sufi Orders in Islam
- Sufism -- Sufis -- Sufi Orders by Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia
- Islam Way Online - Allah Muslims Spiritual Healing and al Quran
- Sufi Practices Practices of the Friends
- The Sufi Study Circle of the University of Toronto
- BBC - Religion & Ethics - Sufism
- Sh.Nadzir As Saghir Sufi Order
- The Islamic Science of Spirituality (Sufism) Audio and articles on Sufism
- Information on Tazkiya (purification)
- Muraqaba, Sufi Meditation
- Roadjunky, Insights into Sufi culture
- Sufi Claimers
- [4] Khamush.com
- SufiBlog Sufism online spiritual magazine of Sufi Meditation (Muraqaba) and Healing
Online resources
- Azeemia spiritual library Books on sufism from silsila-e-azeemia
- www.sacred-texts.com Some books by Rumi, Saadi, Kabir, Khayyam & Ghazali
- Collection of Sufi Poetry
- Excerpts from 'The Conference of the Birds' by Fariduddin-al-Attar
Bookstores
- Moon.Over.Medina A Sufi Bookstore
- Sufi Coffee Shop Center of Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Sufi Order's publications in greater San Jose, CA area.
- Fonsvitae.com
- Islamic texts society
- Al-baz.comBooks by Abdul Qadir Jilani
- Anqa publishing press Books by Ibn Arabi
- Octagon Press Works by Idries Shah, Doris Lessing, Rumi, Glubb Pasha, Sir Richard Burton and others
- Sufi Books and Pir Press
- Amazon.com
Scholars/Imams on tasawuf
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