Caste

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Caste systems have existed throughout history and throughout the world, but the most well-known caste system today is the Indian Varna system. Around one in 25 people in the world experiences some form of caste discrimination; more than half of these are in India.

The word caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race.

Contents

Overview

Anthropologists use the term more generally to refer to a social group that is endogamous and occupationally specialised; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility. Broadly understood, South Africa during the era of apartheid, the practice of slavery in the antebellum South of the United States through the Civil Rights movement, colonial Latin America under Spanish and Portuguese rule, and India prior to 1947 were all class and caste-based societies.

Caste is not unique to Hinduism. Aside from India, caste systems still exist today in other parts of South Asia, and some countries in Africa have equivalents of the Untouchables (Dalit) as a small proportion of the population.[1]

Indian caste system

Main article: Indian caste system

The Indian caste system is a social system in which people are divided into separate communities, known in English as castes, and in Hindi as Varna meaning "colour" or quality. The origin of the caste system is unknown (it exists in Indian populations as jatis) but it affected the many societies that occupy the Indian sub-continent, and later it was transmitted to Nepal. Most Western thought and writing on the subject misapplies the term jati (sub-caste) to the Sanskrit word for Varna (or Caste). In Hindu religious terms the caste system was initiated by Manu, a Hindu priest. This system was basically a simple division of society into four castes or Varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra) arranged according to their function in Indian society. The four varnas by which the function of Indian society has been grouped cannot be identified with the color of the human skin, but by its "quality" or functions in pan-indian sense. Beyond these four castes were the panchamas (or fifths) . These groups were regarded as impure due to their traditional handling of impure substances and therefore were "Untouchable" (Dalit) outcastes till a few decades ago.

For most Indians however, the central fact of their social identity is the sub-caste (jati) grouping they belong to, not the caste or Varna that a particular jati may be thought to fall under. Legally the Indian government forbids the practice of caste-based discrimination. The historic lower castes are provided opportunities through a system called "reservations", in which they are provided with quotas in jobs and educations (A step above affirmative action). Between 25-70% of all opportunities in higher education are reserved for the so called "scheduled castes" and other "backward castes".

The caste system has existed in India from time immemorial. The word "caste" is supposed to translate the Sanskrit word "Varna" but sometimes erraneously as "jati" which is actually a sub-caste in a local region. The sub-caste (jati) belongs to a particular "varna". jati designates specialized hereditary functions to an endogamous community locally.

Given the long history of humans on the Indian sub-continent and the semi-independent development of numerous socio-cultural groups, the population came to be differentiated by endogamous and occupational groupings, perhaps from pre-historic times. These were and still are subgroups (sub-castes) belonging to the four Varnas. By the time we see the development of a pan-Indian cultural notion of Varna, essentially that of being a "Hindu", the sub-caste jatis had proliferated which led to the complexity of India's social structure.

Hinduism came to be "Varnashrama Dharma", the order of (four) castes and (four) stages in life. In pan-indian terms, each local jatis were associated with a particular Varna in pan-indian sense. The people belong to a jati or sub-caste are being identified by their social function/occupation locally and not determined by their economic status i.e, identified by their jati-dharma or jati-function/occupation. Most Indian law givers, maintained that the caste of Brahmins are foremost followed by the Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra in the social hierarchy.

Perhaps the most interesting point about this caste structure is not that it is hierarchical (which it is without a doubt) but rather that the hierarchy disperses only social value but not necessarly economic power.

Local jati sub-castes have also been largely endogamous except when different jati occupational groups merged their jati identification within a Varna. Hence, the proliferation of endogamous groups leading to jati diversity within each four Varna, as too the similarities across them.

Much attention has been paid to the limitations on marraiges across varna/jati categories. Again it is instructive to note that many influential Brahmins, presumptive superiors in the traditional social ordering, had marriage relations that spanned Varnas. Some part of India, Brahmins used to marry Kshatriya Varna girls but less frequently with Vaishya girls. In these cases the offsprings invariably takes the caste of Kshatriya and Vaisya respectively.

The Varna and jati system do not appear to have been the product of a conquering or dominating socio-economic class. Both systems have survived and indeed identification of jati has strengthened, long after the supposed era of "Brahmin dominance". The system is instead an implicit negotiation between India's numerous hereditary occupational (and infrequently ethnic) endogamous groups. The jati system at any given point in time is a point of equilibrium between these elements of society both at the local and pan-Indian level.


Modern perceptions of caste

Whilst the ancient Vedas are said to talk about only four varnas or castes, contemporary India has numerous sub-castes (jatis) within each Varna, officially documented (primarily to determine those deserving reservation, an affirmative action process similar to and predating the US system) through the census. Caste-based politics have strong roots in many Indian states. Sometimes, converts to other religions like Christianity, or Islam, retain their jati identity, often due to the economic benefits it carries, and also to retain their ties with their own community for social reasons.

The embracement of the lower castes into the mainstream of society was brought about by Mahatma Gandhi who called them Harijans ("people of God").

Currently, India has tough laws against untouchability on the basis of caste. In India caste affects daily life. Matrimony between members of different castes is still looked down upon, Intercaste marriages are very rare. Caste based atrocities sometimes occur in many economically backward states and isolated rural districts. There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the erstwhile outcastes, by the provision of education, reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, and a 12.5% quota in government jobs with faster promotions. These affirmative actions have often been challenged in courts, and through mass protests. Anti-reservation activists allege that the process, which they suspect is fuelled by political gains, artificially fosters the sub-divisions. A few allege that in the process of categorizing people "who need reservation", sub-caste based jati identities becomes very important and is firmly entrenched in the Indian psyche. Many also allege that the progress of the meritorious is cramped by the reservation system, which has not been set any deadline by the Constitution of India. Pro-reservation activists allege that the system helps in upliftment of the lower castes and needs to be in place until all sections achieve an equal status in the Indian society. However, what started as a way of upliftment of a certain section of the society, has turned into a full fledged vote bank issue for the politicians. Certain states in India have a reservations of over 70%.

Nepalese caste system

The caste system in Nepal can be traced back to the introduction of Muluki Ain (1854) by Jung Bahadur Rana after his return from his European tour. The Muluki Ain (1854) was a written version of social code that had been in practice for several centuries in Nepal. Its caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure castes. These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence. (Harka Gurung 2005:3,Occational Papers in Sociology and Anthropology)

· Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy chord) · Matwali v Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) v Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers) · Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) · Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes)


The above mention categories implies that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy chord) remains in the highest hierarchy in Hindu caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers touchable caste and lastly untouchable.

Muluki Ain imposes the caste system in Nepal in order to incorporate people of different origin to bring under one umbrella of caste system. The first categories of Thagadhari which include Parbate Brahmin and Chettri are in the higher categories of hierarchy where as Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmin as per Muluki Ain do not fall under these categories.

Matwali group, salvable and enslavable falls under second categories, which include the people of ethnic origin and Brahmins of terai and Newari Brahmins. It also includes those people in the non-enslavable group such as Magar, Gurung, Rai, and Limbu etc and enslavable are Tamang, Chepang, Thami etc.

Untouchable are the categories of varnas system in ancient Manu's Code but some people such as Musalman and foreigners as well falls under these categories. Untouchables are divided into Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) and Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes). In present day context caste system falls under Hindu varna system i.e,Brahmin,Khatria Vaisias and Sudra respectively instead of following Muluki Ain's codification, as ethnic group do not follow the caste system because they have their own culture, tradition ,religion and values system which do not fall under caste system.

Sri Lankan caste system

The caste system appears to have been introduced to Sri Lanka by Aryan-language-speakers from North India. There is evidence of the main vedic castes in the early Anuradhapura era. The introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE somewhat blunted the edge of the system somewhat. However, there is a reference to King Dutugemunu Abhaya's son, Saliya choosing to lose caste by marrying Asokamala, a Chandala (outcaste) woman, in the 2nd century BCE.

The later caste system seems to have evolved as much through waves of ethnic migration as by occupation. Among the present-day Sinhalese the Vedic categories no longer exist, while among the Sri Lanka Tamils, the only Vedic category to persist is that of Brahmins; these ethnic groups share many categories.

The major Sinhalese castes (Jathi) are: Govigama or Goyi ('farmers'), Navandhaenna or Ridhi (silversmiths), Karava (fishermen), Dhurave (toddy tappers), Salagama or Haali (cinnamon peelers), Wahumpura or Hakuru (Jaggery-makers), Bathgama or Padhu (bearers), Berava (Tom-tom beaters), Panna (grass-cutters), Kumbal (potters), Radha (Washers or Dhobies), Demelagaththaro (Tamil tribes) and Hinna (washers to the Salagamas). There also 'Out' castes, the Tamil-speaking, wandering 'Gypsies' - Rodi and Ahikuntaka. The aboriginal Veddas were considered to be outside the caste system: many aristocratic families claim descent from these tribes; however, the 'Gypsy' castes may be ofshoots of aboriginal hunters employed by the ancient kings.

Among the Tamils, many of these castes are duplicated: Vellala (equivalent to Govigama), Karaiyar (Karava) and Dhuraiyar (Dhurave). There is also a caste called Kovi, the members of which claim to be Sinhalese Govigama isolated in Tamil areas after the Chola conquest of the North.

The Indian Tamils who were brought over by the British as indentured labour were mainly from the lower Indian castes; the South Indian categories came over with them.

It appears that caste was more important than ethnicity until comparatively recently. In pre-British times, the Govigama were classed as Vellala by the colonial authorities. Eurasians and South Indian Chetties were absorbed into the Govigamas. Cross-ethnic marriage was fairly common. Several leading 'aristocratic' Sinhalese families are descended from Tamils or Keralites. Many Karavas speak Tamil at home and have relatives among the 'Tamil' Karaiyars.

Balinese caste system

Main article: Balinese caste system

Japanese caste system

Main article: Burakumin

Castes in ancient Israel

Something akin to the caste system was also found in Judaism (during the Temple period), which divided its society into the inherited Cohanim priesthood, who, due to their Temple duties, had access to most parts of the Temple, Levites, whose auxiliary duties allowed them somewhat less access than the Cohanim, a the rest of the Israelites, whose involvement in the Temple was lesser than the Levites. This "caste system" had mostly ritualistic ramifications, and the social side-effects were very limited and far lesser than those found in the Hindu caste system, which entailed almost complete social separation and a clear social hierarchy. Intermarriage was completely allowed within the Israelite people, with rare exception (such as the prohibition against a Cohen marrying a divorcee), and the Israelites were prohibited only from marrying outside their own people. This Israelite "caste system" continued along lines of Patrilineal descent. Converts to the Israelite people were considered full Israelites, and Mosaic law demanded that they be treated kindly and with special sensitivity. In contemporary Judaism, despite the absence of the Temple, certain ritual laws continue to apply to Cohanim, and both they and the Levites are honored with deferential formalities in some rituals.

Castes in Rwanda and Burundi

The caste system is also found in Africa, in Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Congo. The Tutsi, who comprise about 20% of the population of these areas, were the ruling, Cattle-owning caste - corresponding to the Kshatriyas and Brahmins in the Vedic system. Below them were the Hutu, the farmers - corresponding with the Vedic Sudras; about 75% of the population. About 3% of the population are Twa or Pygmies, whose role is somewhat parallel to that of tribespeople outside the Vedic caste system.

During the German suzerainty over Rwanda and Burundi, the authorities reinforced the system by employing Tutsis in hegemonic roles. The Belgian colonialists who succeeded them after World War I continued this policy. After independence, caste tensions intensified. In 1972, Tutsis were responsible for a wholesale massacre of Hutus. In the 1990s, Hutus responded with a counter-massacre. What has been internationally labelled an 'ethnic war' is in fact a caste struggle, with many parallels to that in Bihar in India, where the Brahmins and the Yadavs (farmers) are in a permanent state of tension.

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